UNCAT and Custodial Torture

For Prelims: UNCAT 1984, Human Rights, Article 21, Criminal Justice System, NHRC, UDHR, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Law Commission.  

For Mains: UNCAT and need for India to ratify it, Measures to avoid custodial torture. 

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

The UK High Court's refusal to extradite Sanjay Bhandari and Tahawwur Rana’s US appeal over custodial torture risks have renewed debate on India’s failure to ratify UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (UNCAT) 1984 and enact an anti-torture law. 

What is UNCAT? 

• About: It is an international human rights treaty to prevent torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment worldwide. 
  • It was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10th December 1984 and entered into force on 26th June 1987. 
• Definition of Torture: Article 1 of UNCAT defines torture as the intentional infliction of severe physical or mental pain for purposes like obtaining information, punishment, or intimidation, with involvement or consent of a public official. 
• Universal Jurisdiction: Article 5 require states to prosecute or extradite individuals accused of torture, regardless of where the crime was committed or the nationality of the perpetrator. 
• State Obligations: States parties to UNCAT are required to: 
  • Prohibit torture absolutely (Article 2), even in times of war or other emergencies. 
  • Prohibit the extradition or deportation of individuals (Right to Non-refoulement) to countries where they risk being tortured (Article 3) 
  • Criminalize torture under domestic law (Article 4). 
  • Investigate allegations of torture promptly and impartially (Article 12). 
  • Provide redress and compensation to victims of torture (Article 14). 
• Committee Against Torture (CAT): CAT (Article 17), a body of independent experts tasked with monitoring the implementation of the Convention. 
• Optional Protocol to UNCAT (OPCAT): Adopted in 2002, it creates a preventive mechanism for regular detention visits by international and national bodies. 
• India and UNCAT: India signed UNCAT in 1997 but has not ratified it yet. 

What is Custodial Torture? 

Click Here to Read: Custodial Torture 

Why Is There a Need for India to Ratify the UNCAT? 

• Strengthening Extradition: It will help extradite financial fugitives, often shielded by countries like the UK and US, while enhancing India's reputation for a fair criminal justice system. 
• Addressing Custodial Torture: The NHRC calls custodial violence in India "rampant," with 1,731 detention deaths reported in 2019 alone. 
  • Ratifying UNCAT would require India to implement and enforce measures to prevent torture. 
• Constitutional Obligations: Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which includes protection from torture. 
  • In the RD Upadhyay Case, 1999, the SC ruled that custodial torture violates basic rights, undermines human dignity, and must be addressed realistically by the courts. 
• Ensuring Accountability: UNCAT mandates investigating, prosecuting, and criminalizing torture; ratification would enforce these in India’s legal framework. 
  • In the Prakash Singh Case, 2006, the SC ordered all States and UTs to establish Police Complaints Authorities for independent oversight and citizen redressal against police misconduct. 
• Protecting Vulnerable Communities: Marginalized communities, including Dalits, minorities, and refugees, are disproportionately affected by custodial violence.  
  • Ratifying UNCAT would ban torture on all grounds (religion, caste, race, and ethnicity), upholding human dignity even in war or emergencies. 

What Are the Implications of Non-ratification of UNCAT for India’s Global Standing? 

• Impact on Extradition Requests: Fugitives are increasingly using India’s lack of anti-torture laws to challenge extradition, compromising the effectiveness of its criminal justice system. 
  • This legal gap weakens India’s ability to combat transnational crime and terrorism. 
• Erosion of Soft Power: India’s failure to address custodial torture undermines its credibility as a democratic state committed to human rights. 
  • The Guantanamo Bay example of US demonstrates how torture in state custody irreparably damages a nation’s moral authority. 

What are Various Recommendation for an Anti-torture Law? 

• Rajya Sabha Committee (2010): The Rajya Sabha committee on Prevention of Torture Bill, 2010 recommended a comprehensive anti-torture law reflecting strong political and public support. 
• Law Commission of India: In its 273^rd Report (2017), it recommended ratification of UNCAT and enacting a law to implement the UNCAT, emphasizing the need to criminalize torture. 
  • It also submitted a draft Prevention of Torture Bill for government consideration. 
• Supreme Court: 
  • DK Basu vs State of West Bengal Case, 1997: It laid down guidelines to prevent custodial torture and ensure transparency in arrests and detentions. 
    • The SC said it is the right of the police to investigate the case and interrogate the accused but not allowed to use third-degree tortures to extract the information. 
    • In cases of custodial violence by public servants, the State will also be liable for their actions. 
  • State of Uttar Pradesh vs Ram Sagar Yadav Case, 1985: It is the police officer on whom burden of proof lies in cases involving custodial torture. 
  • Nambi Narayanan Case, 2018: Highlighted the psychological trauma caused by wrongful prosecution and custodial abuse. 
• National Human Rights Commission (NHRC): The NHRC advised that District Magistrates and Police Superintendents must report incidents of custodial torture  to its Secretary General within 24 hours.  
  • Failure to do so may be seen as an attempt to suppress the incident.    
• International Obligations: Articles 51(c) and 253 of the Constitution require adherence to international treaties. 
  • India has ratified treaties like UDHR (1948) and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976) but has not ratified UNCAT, leaving a key gap in its human rights framework. 

How to Address Custodial Torture in India? 

• Legal Reforms: Enact a strict Prevention of Torture law with penalties and victim compensation, aligning with UNCAT standards, and ratify UNCAT to reinforce India's commitment to ending torture. 
• Institutional Accountability: Take swift, transparent action against police in custodial violence cases and form district-level specialized teams for sensitive cases requiring police remand. 
• Capacity Building: Train police in human rights, ethical interrogations, and legal consequences of custodial torture. Educate magistrates on remand evaluation and natural justice. 
  • Separate law enforcement and investigation wing in the police to prevent conflicts of interest and reduce cases of torture. 
• Judicial Monitoring: Magistrates must monitor investigations, ensuring legal compliance. Create independent bodies to probe custodial violence. 

Conclusion 

India's failure to ratify UNCAT weakens its human rights record, hampers extradition requests, and allows custodial torture to persist. Enacting an anti-torture law, strengthening accountability, and judicial oversight are essential to uphold constitutional values, protect vulnerable communities, and enhance India's global credibility as a democratic nation committed to human rights and justice.

Drishti Mains Question:

Discuss the need for legal and institutional reforms to address custodial violence in India and the associated challenges.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Mains

Q. Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analysing their structural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures. (2021) 

Q. National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) in India can be most effective when its tasks are adequately supported by other mechanisms that ensure the accountability of a government. In light of the above observation, assess the role of NHRC as an effective complement to the judiciary and other institutions in promoting and protecting human rights standards. (2014)

India's Integrated Theatre Commands

For Prelims: Integrated theatre command, Chief of Defence Staff, Kargil War, Border Roads Organisation 

For Mains: Importance and challenges of Integrated Theatre Commands in India, Modernisation of India's defence 

Source: HT 

Why in News? 

The Ministry of Defence (MoD) has informed a Parliamentary Standing Committee on Defence that several critical issues must be addressed before implementing integrated theatre commands (ITCs). This comes as part of the MoD's declaration of 2025 as the 'Year of Reforms'.

What is Integrated Theatre Command? 

• About: An ITC is a unified structure where assets from the Army, Navy, and Air Force operate under a single commander for a specific geographical area.  
  • This ensures better coordination, faster decision-making, and improved combat effectiveness.  
  • ITCs will mitigate the shortcomings of single-service operations and integrate emerging war-fighting capabilities, such as cyber and space warfare. 
• Key Committee Recommendations: The Kargil Review Committee, 1999 recommended creation of integrated theatre commands and Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) to improve joint operations and address coordination failures during the Kargil War. 
  • The Shekatkar Committee, 2016 proposed three integrated theatre commands (Western, Northern, and Southern) to enhance tri-service synergy and resource efficiency. 
• Proposed Theatre Commands in India: Northern Theatre Command (Lucknow) focused on countering threats from China. 
  • Western Theatre Command (Jaipur) centered around threats from Pakistan. 
  • Maritime Theatre Command (Thiruvananthapuram) focused on managing operations in the Indian Ocean Region. 
• Progress Toward Theaterisation: The appointment of the CDS as the head of Department of Military Affairs are momentous steps towards the integration and advancement of defence forces.  
  • Inter-Services Organisation (Command, Control, and Discipline) Act 2023 empowers theatre commanders with disciplinary control over all three services and promotes jointness through cross-postings. 
  • First Tri-Service Common Defence Station (Mumbai, 2024) merges logistics and maintenance facilities for all three services under one leadership.

Existing Tri-Service Commands 

• The Andaman and Nicobar Command, based in Port Blair, is India’s first tri-service theatre command, overseeing Southeast Asia and the South China Sea. 
• The Strategic Forces Command (SFC), based in Delhi, responsible for handling India's nuclear deterrence capabilities. 

 

What Challenges Need to be Addressed Before Implementing Theatre Commands? 

• Lack of Joint Doctrine: The Indian Armed Forces have overlapping operational zones but divergent strategic cultures and priorities.  
  • The lack of a unified war-fighting doctrine complicates consensus on command structures. The IAF has resisted theatre commands, fearing dilution of operational control and limited resources. 
• Resource Allocation: The IAF operates with 31 squadrons instead of the sanctioned 42, limiting flexibility in theatre allocations. The Navy's constrained budget affects its role in maritime commands.  
  • The Army dominates budgetary allocations and manpower, potentially skewing command influence and resource distribution. 
  • Additionally, India's military education system remains largely service-specific, lacking institutionalized cross-service training.  
    • Integrating personnel under a unified command structure raises concerns about career progression, rank equivalence, and command hierarchy, making the transition complex. 
• Outdated Equipment: Legacy systems like MiG-21s still operate without upgrades, reflecting deeper procurement and planning flaws. 
  • Delays in indigenous platforms (e.g., Arjun tank, aircraft carrier INS Vishal) highlight capability gaps that affect force integration. 
• Infrastructure & Logistics: Underdeveloped infrastructure, particularly in the Northern Theatre, hampers joint operations due to inadequate road and rail connectivity. 
• Technological Integration: India’s theatre commands must enhance cyber, space, and electronic warfare capabilities, as ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance) integration is still nascent in India compared to China. 
• Two-Front Threat: India's theatre commands must prepare for a two-front threat from a militarily and economically aligned China and Pakistan, ensuring readiness for simultaneous operations across diverse terrains.

How Can ITC Challenges Be Addressed?

• Unified Military Doctrine: Establish a joint warfighting doctrine through consensus among services to guide theatre command operations.  
  • Promote tri-service strategic planning and operations under the leadership of the CDS. 
• Phased Implementation: Initiate pilot projects in specific domains, such as air defense or maritime operations, to evaluate and refine the theatre command structure. 
• Modernise Command and Control Architecture: Invest in a Indigenous robust, secure, and interoperable C4ISR system (Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance).  
  • Integrate cyber and space commands into theatre command planning. 
• Enhance Infrastructure in Forward Areas: Fast-track infrastructure development in border areas through the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) and Vibrant Villages Programme. 
  • Improve logistics, and energy supply chains for long-term sustainability of forward deployments. 
• Establish Joint Training: Expand  a Tri-Service War College like  National Defence College and integrate service academies with joint training modules.

Conclusion

Integrated Theatre Commands aim to transform India’s military, but challenges like inter-service coordination and technology integration remain. As 2025 marks the "Year of Reforms," theatreisation is set to gain momentum, enhancing India’s defence.

Drishti Mains Question: 

What are the major challenges in implementing Integrated Theatre Commands in India? Suggest solutions. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. Department of Border Management is a Department of which one of the following Union Ministries? (2008)

(a) Ministry of Defence 
(b) Ministry of Home Affairs 
(c) Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways 
(d) Ministry of Environment and Forests 

Ans: (b)

---

Mains 

Q1: Analyze the multidimensional challenges posed by external state and non-state actors, to the internal security of India. Also discuss measures required to be taken to combat these threats. (2021) 

Q2: Analyze internal security threats and transborder crimes along Myanmar, Bangladesh and Pakistan borders including Line of Control (LoC). Also discuss the role played by various security forces in this regard. (2020) 

Q3: Border management is a complex task due to difficult terrain and hostile relations with some countries. Elucidate the challenges and strategies for effective border management. (2016)

World Consumer Rights Day 2025

For Prelims: World Consumer Rights Day, National Consumer Day, Consumer Protection Act 2019, Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) 

For Mains: Safeguarding the Rights of Consumers and related issues, Government Policies & Interventions, Transparency & Accountability 

Source: PIB 

Why in News? 

The Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution celebrated the World Consumer Rights Day with the theme “A Just Transition to Sustainable Lifestyles.” 

• India celebrates 24^th December as National Consumer Day every year, and the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 provides comprehensive legislation to strengthen consumer rights. 

World Consumer Rights Day 

• Instituted on 15^th  March 1983, the day (15th  March) commemorates President John F. Kennedy's 1962 address to the US Congress, where he became the first global leader to formally recognize consumer rights.  

What is the Consumer Protection Act, 2019? 

• About: It is a comprehensive legislation that replaced the Consumer Protection Act, 1986.  
  • It aims to strengthen consumer rights in India, addressing challenges from globalization, technology, and e-commerce.  
• Key Features: 
  • Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA): CCPA has been established to regulate matters related to unfair trade practices, misleading advertisements, and violations of consumer rights. 
  • Consumer Rights: The Act reinforces 6 consumer rights, including the right to be informed, the right to choose, and the right to seek redressal. 
  • E-Commerce Regulation: Brings e-commerce platforms under its purview, making them accountable for consumer grievances. 
  • Product Liability: Manufacturers, service providers, and sellers are held liable for defective products or services. 
  • Simplified Dispute Resolution: Provides for mediation, reducing the burden on consumer courts. 
  • Enhanced Penalties: Imposes strict penalties for false or misleading advertisements and unfair trade practices. 
  • Fast Resolution: According to Section 38(7) of the Act, consumer complaints should be resolved within 3 to 5 months, depending on the complexity of the case. 

What are the Key Initiatives to Strengthen Consumer Grievance Redressal Mechanisms? 

• E-Dakhil Portal and e-Jagriti: The E-Dakhil Portal (launched in 2020) enables consumers to file complaints online. 
  • E-Jagriti (introduced in 2024) strengthens case tracking and management, using digital interventions for a more streamlined consumer grievance redressal process. 
• National Consumer Helpline (NCH) 2.0: NCH 2.0 integrates AI-powered speech recognition, multilingual chatbots, and partnerships with 1,000+ companies to expedite grievance redressal. It supports 17 languages and is accessible via WhatsApp, SMS, Umang app, and other platforms for wider consumer outreach. 
• Consumer Welfare Fund (CWF): CWF provides financial aid to strengthen consumer rights, advocacy, and legal assistance. 
• Consumer Protection in E-Commerce and Digital Transactions: 
  • E-Commerce Rules, 2020: It mandates fair business practices, transparency in transactions, and grievance redressal mechanisms. 
  • Dark Patterns Regulation, 2023: Introduced by the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) to prohibit deceptive digital marketing practices like false urgency, forced actions, and hidden charges. 
• Jaago Grahak Jaago: It is a part of the consumer awareness campaign which alerts users about fraudulent URLs, empowering them to make informed e-commerce decisions. 

What are the Challenges in Consumer Protection in India & Way Forward?

Challenges	Way Forward
Awareness: Low consumer awareness about rights and redressal mechanisms.	Implement widespread consumer education campaigns, integrate consumer rights education into school curricula.
Enforcement: Consumer courts face delays in case resolution, and product liability provisions are inconsistently enforced, weakening consumer protection.	Streamline court processes, expand consumer courts, enhance alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, and improve judicial training with clear enforcement guidelines.
Digital Marketplace Issues: Challenges related to e-commerce, data privacy, and online fraud.	Strengthen e-commerce regulations, enforce data protection laws, and enhance monitoring of online transactions.
Resource Constraints: Limited resources allocated to consumer protection agencies.	Increase funding for consumer protection agencies, hire more staff, and improve infrastructure.
Regulatory Overlaps: Overlaps and conflicts between different regulatory bodies and laws.	Clarify roles and responsibilities of different regulatory bodies, streamline regulatory frameworks.

Conclusion

World Consumer Rights Day highlights the need for a transparent and fair consumer ecosystem. While India is advancing through policy reforms and digital initiatives, challenges like delayed justice, digital fraud, and regulatory gaps persist. Strengthening institutions, enhancing awareness, and leveraging technology are key to ensuring consumer empowerment and economic fairness. 

Drishti Mains Question: 

What are the major challenges in ensuring effective protection of consumer rights in India, and how can these be addressed through policy interventions and institutional reforms?

 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question 

Prelims

Q.1 With reference to ‘consumers’ rights/privileges under the provisions of law in India, which of the following statements is/are correct ? (2012) 

1. Consumers are empowered to take samples for food testing. 
2. When a consumer files a complaint in any consumer forum, no fee is required to be paid. 
3. In case of death of consumer, his/her legal heir can file a complaint in the consumer forum on his/ her behalf. 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 and 3 only 
(c) 1 and 3 only 
(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: c 

India-US Agricultural Trade Negotiations

Source: IE 

Why in News?

The trade negotiations between India and the US have highlighted agricultural market access. The US wants India to open its farm sector to American produce, citing reciprocity.  

• However, a major issue is the disparity in government support for farmers in both countries. The substantial support for American farmers makes their produce cheaper in India, impacting Indian farmers. 

How Does India Support Its Farmers Compared to the US? 

• Nature of Support Mechanisms: India's support primarily includes subsidies on inputs such as fertilizers, irrigation, and electricity, along with Minimum Support Price (MSP)  procurement and credit-linked schemes to aid small farmers. 
  • In contrast, US support mainly comes through direct payments under federal programs such as:  
    • Price Loss Coverage: Compensates farmers when market prices fall below a set threshold. 
    • Agriculture Risk Coverage: Provides payments when actual revenue from a crop is lower than a benchmark level. 
    • Dairy Margin Coverage: Protects dairy farmers from fluctuations in milk prices and feed costs. 
    • Federal Crop Insurance: Provides insurance against yield and price losses. 
    • Disaster Assistance: Help farmers to recover from natural disasters. 
• Comparison of Financial Support: India’s government spends an estimated Rs 5 lakh crore (USD 57.5 billion) annually on agricultural support, higher than the USD 32.2 billion average annual US financial assistance. 
  • However, Indian support is spread across over 111 million farmers, while US aid benefits fewer than 2 million farms. 
  • The US provides direct payments of USD 30,782 ( Rs 26.8 lakh) per farmer, while India gives Rs 6,000 ( USD 69) per beneficiary under the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-Kisan) scheme.

How Will Differing Government Policies Impact India? 

• Unfair Competition for Indian Farmers: Unequal government support makes Indian farmers vulnerable to lower-cost American produce in the Indian market.  
  • This puts Indian farmers at a disadvantage due to high capital input costs, making Indian agricultural products less competitive in both global and domestic markets. 
• Tariff Reduction vs. Domestic Policy Goals: India maintains high tariffs on agricultural imports to safeguard its farmers, while the US seeks tariff cuts for easier market access. 
  • Any drastic reduction in tariffs could undermine India's food security policies and threaten the livelihoods of millions of Indian farmers. 
• WTO Rules: The World Trade Organization (WTO) allows developing countries like India to protect their agricultural sector through higher tariffs and subsidies. 
  • The principle of “non-reciprocity” states that developed countries should not expect equal market access in return for concessions granted to developing economies. 
  • India resists farm market liberalization, citing weaker financial resilience among its farmers. It is likely to push back against US demands, emphasizing WTO rules and farmer security concerns. 

Read more: India - US COMPACT Initiative 

Drishti Mains Question:

How do farm support mechanisms in the US differ from those in India? Analyze their implications for trade negotiations. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Mains:

Q1. How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity and the economy of farmers? What is the significance of crop insurance, minimum support price and food processing for small and marginal farmers? (2017)  

Q2. In what way could replacement of price subsidy with direct benefit Transfer (DBT) change the scenario of subsidies in India? Discuss. (2015)  

Q3. What are the different types of agriculture subsidies given to farmers at the national and at state levels? Critically, analyse the agricultural subsidy regime with reference to the distortions created by it. (2013)

Bose Metal

Source: TH

Why in News?

A team of researchers from China and Japan has reported experimental evidence that Niobium diselenide (NbSe₂) exhibits properties of a Bose metal. 

Niobium Diselenide (NbSe₂) 

• NbSe₂ is a type-II superconductor, which means it can let some magnetic field pass through without losing its superconducting ability. Researchers studied a single-layer (2D) form of NbSe₂ to better observe and enhance quantum effects. 

What is Bose Metal? 

• About: Bose Metal refers to an exotic quantum state where electron pairs (Copper pairs- bound state of two electrons that move through a superconductor without resistance) form but do not transition into a superconducting state. 
  • Superconductivity is a state of matter where a material exhibits zero electrical resistance and perfect diamagnetism (expels magnetic fields) below a critical temperature (T₀), allowing current to flow indefinitely without energy loss. 
• Key Features: 
  • Absence of Superconducting Transition: In Bose metal, copper pairs form, but the material does not achieve zero resistance, behaving as a better conductor than typical metals. 
  • Anomalous Metallic State (AMS): It defies conventional predictions that metals should either be insulators or superconductors at low temperatures. 
  • Intermediate Conductivity: The electrical conductivity of Bose metals lies between an insulator (zero) and a superconductor (infinite) at absolute zero and its conductivity is influenced by quantum fluctuations and external conditions like magnetic fields. 
• Applications: 
  • Quantum Computing Research: Bose metals can help explore novel quantum states, aid in the development of quantum bits (qubits), and can provide insights into complex quantum phases, including disordered metals and unconventional materials. 
  • Advanced Electronics: Their unique conductive properties can influence the design of next-generation electronic devices, enabling improved performance and energy efficiency. 
  • Superconductivity Research: As an intermediate phase, Bose metals enhance the understanding of the transition to superconductivity, contributing to the development of high-temperature superconductors. 
• Limitations: 
  • Bose metals face theoretical ambiguities, with no universal definition, and practical applications yet. Their experimental detection is challenging, requiring specific low-temperature and magnetic conditions. 

Cooper Pairs: 

• The concept was discovered by Leon Cooper in 1956.  
• In superconductors, Cooper pairs condense and allow current to flow without resistance, but in a Bose metal, these pairs form yet fail to condense into a superconducting state. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims

Q. Which one of the following is the context in which the term "qubit" is mentioned?

(a) Cloud Services  
(b) Quantum Computing  
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies  
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies  

Ans: (b) 

Sonic Weapons

Source: IE 

The Serbian government has denied allegations that police used sonic weapons to disperse anti-government protesters. 

• Sonic Weapons are devices that deliver highly concentrated, amplified sound over long distances usually for crowd control. 
• In 2004, the United States first used such special devices to project loud sounds over long distances in Iraq. 
• It is of 3 types: 
  • Long-Range Acoustic Device (LRAD): Produces sound up to 160 decibels (dB) causing ringing ears (tinnitus), hearing damage, and other health issues. 
    • A jet engine during takeoff produces 130-140 dB, and a gunshot around 150 dB. Sounds above 120 dB can cause permanent hearing damage. 
  • Mosquito: Emits high-pitched sounds painful only to younger people (under 30). 
  • Infrasonic Weapon: Delivers low-frequency, inaudible sounds causing pain and disorientation. 
• Serbia is a landlocked country in eastern Europe. Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, but Serbia does not recognize Kosovo’s statehood. 

Read More: Kosovo-Serbia Conflict 

Cabinet Approves Multi-Sectoral Package for Economic Growth

Source: LM 

The Union Cabinet has approved a multi-sectoral package worth Rs 22,791 crore encompassing a Unified Payments Interface (UPI) incentive, a urea plant in Assam, a highway project in Maharashtra, and revised dairy development schemes. 

• Digital Payments Incentive: Rs 1,500 crore allocated for the Incentive Scheme to promote low-value UPI (Person-to-Merchant) transactions (FY25) under the Zero Merchant Discount Rate Policy, to promote digital payments & financial inclusion. 
  • A 0.15% incentive is offered for transactions under Rs 2,000, benefiting small merchants (digital payments < Rs 50,000/month). 
  • The government pays incentives to acquiring banks (merchant's banks), which are shared with issuer bank (customer's bank), payment service providers, and app providers. 
• Highway Project in Maharashtra: Approved Chowk-Pagote six-lane highway under PM Gati Shakti to enhance Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust connectivity. 
• Fertilizer Plant in Assam: Rs 10,601 crore approved for Namrup-IV Urea Plant under 'Act East' policy, boosting Northeast & eastern India's urea supply and exports to Southeast Asia. 
• Revised National Programme for Dairy Development: Total outlay revised to Rs 2,970 crore, to establish 10,000 Dairy Cooperatives & create 3.2 lakh jobs, mainly for women. 
• Rashtriya Gokul Mission (2021-26) total outlay revised to Rs 3,400 crore to boost high-yield cattle breeds. 

Read more: India's Journey of Infrastructure Development 

India Defers GNSS-Based Toll Collection

Source: IE 

The Indian government has postponed the rollout of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for toll collection, citing security and privacy concerns. 

• The government will proceed with Barrier-Less Free Flow tolling using Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras and FASTag instead of GNSS. 
• GNSS: Calculates tolls using satellites and onboard units (OBUs) to determine tolls based on the distance traveled by vehicles.  
  • However, this system raises concerns about operational control, data privacy, and potential breaches due to its dependence on non-Indian satellites. 
• ANPR FASTag System (AFS): Uses cameras to automatically recognize vehicle number plates and link them to the corresponding FASTag account for toll deduction. 
  • FASTag by the National Payments Corporation of India a device that employs Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology for making toll payments directly while the vehicle is in motion.  
    • FASTag (RFID Tag) on the vehicle's windscreen enables automatic toll payments from a linked bank account.

Read more: New Satellite-Based Toll Collection System 

Birefringence

Source: PR 

Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another due to a change in its speed. However, some materials also exhibit a phenomenon known as Birefringence (Double refraction). 

Birefringence: It is the optical property of certain materials where incident light splits into 2 rays, each traveling at different speeds due to varying refractive indices in different directions. It arises due to the anisotropic nature of materials. 

• The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a medium.  A vacuum has a refractive index of 1. A higher refractive index indicates greater optical density and slower light speed. 
• Types of Birefringent Materials: 
  • Natural: Calcite, quartz, mica 
  • Synthetic: Barium borate, lithium niobate 
  • Induced: Can be created by applying physical stress, electric, or magnetic fields 
• Applications: Used in LCDs, microscopes, optical switches, waveplates, frequency converters, and lasers for light manipulation. 

Isotropic and Anisotropic Materials: 

• Isotropic Materials: Have uniform structure, refract light at a constant angle, and allow it to pass at a single velocity without polarization. Eg: Glass, Table salt (NaCl). 
• Anisotropic Materials: Have different crystal axes, causing light to split into 2 rays with different velocities and perpendicular polarization (birefringence). Eg: Calcite, Quartz, Mica, Tourmaline.

Read More: Photonic Crystal