Comptroller & Auditor-General of India (CAG)

Read More...

SC Calls for Reform to Empower Women Leaders

For Prelims: Supreme Court, Elected Women Representatives , Panchayati Raj Institutions, Pradhan-pati, Self Help Groups, Urban local bodies, Delimitation exercise.

For Mains: Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in India, Governance Reforms for Women Leaders, Political Participation of Women in India

Source: HT

The Supreme Court (SC) of India has called for governance reforms to empower female elected representatives and protect their autonomy. It highlighted systemic gender bias, bureaucratic overreach, and discriminatory practices that undermine women in leadership roles.

• SC urges for introspection and structural changes to promote gender equality in governance.

What are the Challenges Faced by Women Leaders in Governance?

• Systemic Discrimination: Elected Women Representatives (EWRs) of India’s Panchayati Raj Institutions(PRIs) are often treated as subordinates to bureaucrats, who frequently ignore their legitimacy.
  • Bureaucrats may overstep their roles, making unilateral decisions without consulting elected representatives, thereby undermining the democratic process.
  • This power imbalance stifles the decision-making capabilities of elected representatives, particularly women.
• Sarpanch-Patism: Also known as pradhan-pati, practice where husbands of elected women panchayat leaders exercise power, undermining women's autonomy and leadership. This reinforces patriarchy and weakens the intent of the 73^rd Constitutional Amendment(women's reservation in panchayats) to empower women.
• Also known as pradhan-pati, it is a practice observed in panchayats where men often exercise actual political and decision-making power while elected women representatives hold the title of sarpanch or pradhan, leading to a lack of autonomy for female leaders.
• Political Barriers: Women leaders often face limited financial support and fewer political connections compared to their male counterparts.
  • Political parties may allocate fewer resources to female candidates, making it more difficult for them to run for office and gain recognition.
  • Additionally, most female leaders in PRIs hold office for only a single term due to limited resources, which hinders their ability to participate again.
• Violence and Intimidation: Female leaders may face threats, harassment, and violence, which can prevent them from fully engaging in their roles.
  • Administrative authorities and panchayat members often team up to take revenge against female leaders.
• Neglect of Principles of Natural Justice: The removal of elected female representatives undermines democratic norms and fairness by denying them a fair hearing and making opaque decisions, perpetuating discrimination and biased practices in governance.
• Structural Barriers: Delayed work orders and procedural hurdles obstruct women’s developmental initiatives, discouraging their participation in governance.

What is the Role of Women in Governance?

• Promotes Gender Equality: Women’s participation in governance addresses long-standing gender disparities, promoting equality in decision-making processes.
  • It challenges societal norms that limit women’s roles to the private sphere, ensuring representation in public and political domains.
• Enhances Policy Outcomes: Women bring diverse perspectives rooted in their lived experiences, leading to more comprehensive and empathetic policymaking.
  • For instance, EWRs in Rajasthan have been actively promoting environmental sustainability through initiatives aligned with the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan and efforts to curb plastic usage, contributing to a cleaner and greener future.
  • Women leaders are often perceived as less corrupt and more committed to their responsibilities, fostering transparency and trust in public administration.
    • Their inclusion ensures the formulation of gender-sensitive policies, addressing issues like maternal health, workplace equity, and education.
• Encourages Grassroots Participation: Women’s involvement in local governance inspires other women to participate, creating a ripple effect of empowerment. This involvement also assists in the growth of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), thereby improving livelihoods.
  • India’s above 44% participation of EWRs in local governance demonstrates the success of seat reservations and women-centric policies.
• Addresses Gender-Based Violence: Women leaders play a critical role in addressing domestic violence, child marriage, and other gender-based issues.
  • For instance, according to the Ministry of Women and Child Development 2 lakh child marriages were prevented in 2023. EWRs were found to have intervened to stop abuse reported by women in their constituencies.
• Supports Democratic Values: Women’s involvement strengthens democratic principles by ensuring that half the population has a voice in policy-making. It upholds social justice and the right to equal representation in political processes.

Women’s Representation in India’s Governance

• Parliament: In the Lok Sabha, women's representation has risen from 5-10% until 2004 to 13.6% in the 18^th Lok Sabha(2024- Present), while in the Rajya Sabha, it stands at 13%.
  • The number of women contesting elections has increased significantly, from 45 women candidates in 1957 to 799 (9.5% of total candidates) in 2024.
• State Legislatures: The national average of women's representation in State Legislative Assemblies is just 9%, with no state exceeding 20% female legislators. Chhattisgarh has the highest at 18%.
• Panchayati Raj Institution: According to a 2024 report by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), 45.6% of the total representatives of PRIs are EWRs.
• Urban Local Bodies: In India, 46% of councillors are women, with over 60% in 19 of 21 capital cities with active urban local bodies.
• Global Scenario: India ranks 143 out of 185 countries in terms of women's representation in the lower house of Parliament.

What are India’s Efforts to Promote Women in Governance?

• Reservation in Panchayats: The 73^rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 mandates that one-third of the seats in Panchayats (local government bodies) are reserved for women, including the positions of chairpersons.
• Reservation in Urban Local Bodies: Similar to the Panchayats, the 74^th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 ensures one-third reservation for women in urban local bodies, such as municipalities.
• Women's Reservation Act, 2023: The legislation under the 106^th Constitutional Amendment (2023) mandates the reservation of one-third of all seats in the Lok Sabha, and state legislative assemblies for women.
  • The reservation will be implemented after the first census following the commencement of the 106^th Amendment Act including a delimitation exercise.
• National Commission for Women (NCW): Established in 1992, the NCW works to protect and promote the interests of women, including those in governance roles.
• Supportive Legislation: Laws such as the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, and the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, provide a safer environment for women to participate in governance.
• Initiatives:
  • Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA): Launched in 2018, RGSA aims to strengthen PRIs' capacity for responsive rural governance, using technology and resources to promote sustainable solutions and incentivize women's participation.
  • Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP): GPDP guidelines promote women’s empowerment through active participation in budgeting, planning, implementation, and monitoring, including Mahila Sabhas before Gram Sabhas.

Way Forward

• Structural Reforms: Redesign governance frameworks to ensure equal treatment of elected representatives and bureaucrats. Strengthen accountability mechanisms to prevent misuse of administrative power.
• Technology Integration: Utilize digital platforms to monitor attendance, and engagement of women leaders. Mobile applications for voicing women’s issues and ensuring grassroots accountability.
• Promotion of Women’s Leadership: Encourage capacity-building initiatives for female leaders, especially in rural areas. Provide mentorship and support to help them navigate systemic challenges.
  • Increase female representation in Panchayat roles (e.g., Panchayat Secretary) by selecting candidates from forums like Self Help Groups. Implement monitoring mechanisms to limit male interference.
• Inclusive Governance Practices: Ensure fair representation of women in decision-making bodies at all levels. Foster a culture of collaboration between elected representatives and administrative authorities.
• Legal Safeguards: Introduce stringent penalties for violations of principles of natural justice in cases of elected representatives. Develop grievance redressal mechanisms to address systemic harassment promptly.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the challenges faced by women leaders in governance and suggest reforms that could promote their active participation in the political process.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question

Mains

Q.1 What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space? (2019)

Q.2 Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness. (2021)

State of Undertrial Prisoners in India

For Prelims: Constitution Day, Section 479 of the BNSS, Section 436A of CrPC, Supreme Court, laws on bail for undertrial prisoners, Legislature (Parliament), Enforcement (Police), Adjudication (Court)

For Mains: Status of Prison Administration in India, Issues Related to Prison in India, Criminal Procedure Code, 1973

Source: IE

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Home Minister emphasized the need for expediting the release of undertrial prisoners who have served more than one-third of their maximum sentence by 26^th November (Constitution Day).

• The initiative also aligns with the recently enacted Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, which introduces provisions for relaxed bail for first-time offenders.

Note: An undertrial prisoner is an individual who is in custody while awaiting trial or the conclusion of legal proceedings against them. This category includes those who have not yet been convicted of a crime and are held in judicial custody during the legal process.

What is the Current State of Undertrial Prisoners in India?

• High Proportion of Undertrials: As per the Prison Statistics India 2022 report by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) undertrials constitute 75.8% of India’s prison population (4,34,302 out of 5,73,220).
  • Among the 23,772 incarcerated women, 76.33% are undertrials, and 8.6% of all undertrials have been in prison for over three years.
• Overcrowding: According to a report by the Supreme Court’s Centre for Research and Planning, Indian prisons operate at 131% occupancy, housing 573,220 inmates against a capacity of 436,266.
  • Notably, 75.7% of these inmates are undertrials, reflecting a substantial judicial backlog.
• Lack of Legal Representation: Despite Article 39A guaranteeing free legal aid, many undertrial prisoners lack access to legal representation due to an insufficient lawyer-to-prisoner ratio, hindering their ability to defend themselves effectively.

What are the Provisions Related to Undertrial Prisoners in India?

• Section 479 of BNSS: Aims to reduce prolonged detention, focusing on first-time offenders.
  • Relaxed Standards for First-Time Offenders: First-time offenders, defined as those without prior convictions, must be released on bond after serving one-third of the maximum sentence.
  • General Rule for Bail: Undertrials accused of non-capital offenses (not punishable by death or life imprisonment) are eligible for bail after serving half of the maximum sentence.
    • Builds upon Section 436A of the CrPC, which similarly allowed release after serving half the sentence.
  • Exceptions: Provisions do not apply to cases involving multiple offenses or ongoing investigations for other crimes.
• Section 436A of CrPC:
  • Eligibility for Bail: Undertrials who have served half of the maximum imprisonment period for their alleged offense can be released on personal bond (with or without sureties).
  • Exclusion: Does not apply to offenses punishable by death or life imprisonment.
• Directions by the Judiciary:
  • Supreme Court’s PIL on Prison Conditions (2013): In Re: Inhuman Conditions in 1382 Prisons, the Court highlighted issues like overcrowding, delayed trials, and prolonged detention of undertrials.
    • It directed state governments to ensure timely identification and release of eligible undertrials under Section 436A CrPC.
  • Retrospective Application of Section 479 of BNSS: The Supreme Court ruled that the relaxed bail provisions under BNSS would apply retrospectively to cases filed before its enactment.
  • The court has emphasized that speedy trial is a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution, and any unjustified delay in trial could lead to bail being granted.

What are the Implications of the Undertrial Crisis in India?

• Violation of Fundamental Rights: Prolonged detention without trial infringes upon several fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution, including the right to a speedy trial (Article 21) and the presumption of innocence until proven guilty (Article 20(3)).
• Judicial Backlog: The high number of undertrial prisoners contributes significantly to the backlog of cases in the Indian judicial system. This backlog delays justice for all individuals and undermines public trust in the legal system.
• Impact of Delayed Justice: Prolonged detention affects access to justice, rehabilitation, and the socio-economic well-being of undertrial prisoners and their families.
  • Prison overcrowding often leads to inhumane living conditions, compounding health and psychological challenges.
• Mental Health Issues: Long periods of incarceration without conviction can lead to severe psychological distress among undertrials, including anxiety, depression, and a sense of hopelessness.
• Erosion of Trust: The high number of undertrials and the resulting delays erode public confidence in the legal system. When justice is delayed or denied, citizens may lose faith in the ability of the legal system to provide timely and fair outcomes.

How Prisons are Regulated in India?

• Constitutional Provisions:
  • Article 21: It protects prisoners against torture and inhuman treatment. It also ensures timely trials for prisoners.
  • Article 22: An arrested person must be promptly informed of the reasons for their arrest and has the right to consult and be defended by a lawyer of their choice.
  • Article 39A: Ensures free legal aid to ensure justice for those unable to afford legal representation
• Legal Framework:
  • Prisons Act, 1894: The Prisons Act, enacted during British rule, serves as the foundational legal framework for prison management in India.
    • It focuses on the custody and discipline of prisoners but lacks provisions for rehabilitation and reform.
  • The Identification of Prisoners Act, 1920: This law governs the identification process for prisoners and the collection of biometric data.
  • The Transfer of Prisoners Act, 1950: It provides guidelines for the transfer of prisoners between different states and jurisdictions.
• Oversight Mechanisms
  • Judicial Oversight: The Indian judiciary plays a critical role in overseeing prison conditions through Public Interest Litigations (PILs) and specific cases addressing inmate rights.
    • For instance, the Supreme Court in D.K. Basu vs. State of West Bengal (1997), mandated strict protocols for arrest and detention.

What are the Initiatives Related to Prison Reforms in India?

• Modernization of Prisons Scheme: The scheme for modernisation of prisons was launched in 2002-03 with the objective of improving the condition of prisons, prisoners and prison personnel.
• Modernisation of Prisons Project (2021-26): Government has decided to provide financial assistance to States and UTs, through the Project for using modern-day security equipment in Prisons for enhancing the security of jails and to facilitate the task of reformation and rehabilitation of prisoners through correctional administration programmes.
• E-Prisons Project: The E-Prisons project aims to introduce efficiency in prison management through digitization.
• Model Prison Manual Act, 2016: The manual provides detailed information about the legal services (including free services) available to prison inmates.
• National Legal Services Authority (NALSA): It was constituted under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 which came into force on 9th November, 1995 to establish a nationwide uniform network for providing free and competent legal services to the weaker sections of the society.

Way Forward

• Making Prisons Correctional Institutions: The ideal policy prescription of making prisons into places of rehabilitation and “correctional institutions” will only be achieved when the issues of unrealistically low budgetary allocation, high workloads and the unmindfulness of the police regarding procedural safeguards are addressed.
• Implementing Committee Recommendation: The Supreme Court appointed Justice Amitava Roy (retd.) Committee(2018) which gave the following recommendations to address the overcrowding of prisons:
  • Speedy trial remains one of the best ways to remedy the unwarranted phenomenon of overcrowding.
  • There should be at least one lawyer for every 30 prisoners, which is not the case at present.
  • Special fast-track courts should be set up to deal exclusively with petty offences which have been pending for more than five years.
  • The concept of plea bargaining, in which the accused admits guilt for a lesser sentence, should be promoted.
• Improving Prison Management: This includes providing proper training and resources to prison staff, as well as implementing effective systems for monitoring and accountability.
  • This also includes providing basic amenities such as clean drinking water, sanitation, and medical facilities to inmates.

Drishti Mains Question

Q. Discuss the current status of undertrial prisoners in India and analyze the potential of provisions under the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, to address these issues. Suggest measures to ensure effective implementation of such reforms.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. Consider the following statements in respect of the Constitution Day :(2023)

Statement-I : The Constitution Day is celebrated on 26th November every year to promote constitutional values among citizens.

Statement-II : On 26^th November, 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to prepare a Draft Constitution of India.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I

(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect

(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

Ans: (c)

Q. Which one of the following statements best reflects the Chief purpose of the 'Constitution' of a country?(2023)

(a) It determines the objective for the making of necessary laws.

(b) It enables the creation of political offices and a government.

(c) It defines and limits the powers of government.

(d) It secures social justice, social equality and social security.

Ans: (c)

Mains

Q.1 Instances of the President’s delay in commuting death sentences has come under public debate as denial of justice. Should there be a time specified for the President to accept/reject such petitions? Analyse. (2014)

Q.2 National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) in India can be most effective when its tasks are adequately supported by other mechanisms that ensure the accountability of a government. In light of above observation assess the role of NHRC as an effective complement to the judiciary and other institutions in promoting and protecting human rights standards. (2014)

World War II and India

For Prelims: World War I, World War II, Treaty of Versailles, Operation Barbarossa, Policy of Appeasement, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Marshall Plan

For Mains: India's role in World War II, Causes and consequences of World War II, Global impacts of World War II

Source: TH

Why in News?

The recent discovery of 23 Japanese soldiers' remains in Bangladesh after more than 80 years has reignited discussions on World War II and the role of various countries, including India, in the conflict.

What are the Key Facts About World War II?

• Duration and Scope: World War II lasted from 1939 to 1945 and was the most widespread and devastating conflict in human history.
• Primary Combatants: The two main opposing alliances were the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) and the Allied powers (including the US, France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China).

• Trigger Event: The immediate cause of the war was Germany's invasion of Poland on 1^st September 1939, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
• Causes of the War:
  • Treaty of Versailles (1919): The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919 by Germany and the Allied Nations, formally ended World War I.
    • The treaty required Germany to pay reparations, disarm, lose territory, and relinquish its overseas colonies. These harsh terms created resentment and economic instability, contributing to the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany.
  • Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations, established in 1919 to maintain world peace, aimed for universal membership and the resolution of disputes through negotiation rather than force.
    • Despite being a good idea, the League of Nations ultimately failed because not all countries joined. Its inability to stop Japan's invasion of Manchuria in China and Italy's invasion of Ethiopia encouraged the Axis powers to pursue further aggressive actions.
  • Economic Depression 1929: The global economic downturn of the late 1920s and early 1930s led to the rise of totalitarian regimes (one political party that has absolute power) in countries like Italy, Japan, and Germany.
    • Germany, Italy, and Japan aggressively expanded their territories in the 1930s, leading to military confrontations.
  • Rise of Fascism: After World War I, the victors aimed to "make the world safe for democracy," leading to democratic constitutions in Germany and other states.
    • However, in the 1920s, nationalism and militaristic totalitarianism (fascism) emerged. It promised to meet people's needs more effectively than democracy and positioned itself as a defense against communism.
    • Benito Mussolini established the first fascist dictatorship in Europe in Italy in 1922.
  • Rise of Nazism: Adolf Hitler, leader of the German National Socialist (Nazi) party, preached a racist form of fascism, promising to overturn the Versailles Treaty and secure more Lebensraum (“living space”) for the "superior" German race.
    • He became German Chancellor in 1933 and established himself as a dictator. In 1941, the Nazi regime launched a war of extermination against Slavs, Jews, and others deemed inferior.
  • Policy of Appeasement: The policy of appeasement, followed by Britain and France, aimed to avoid war with aggressive powers like Japan, Italy, and Germany by conceding to their demands to maintain peace.
    • This approach allowed Nazi Germany to annex territories without military intervention, escalating the conflict.
• Major Phases of the War:
  • Outbreak and Early Axis Victories: The Phoney War (1939‒1940), Hitler conquered Poland, leading to a period of minimal land activity as countries waited for the other to act.
    • Early Axis successes through Germany’s Blitzkrieg (combination of speed, surprise, and concentrated firepower) tactics led to the rapid occupation of much of Western Europe, including France.
  • Operation Barbarossa (1941): Germany invades the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) marked a significant turning point.
    • Despite initial successes, the Soviet Union managed to halt the German advance, particularly during the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943).
  • Entry of the United States: Following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the US entered the war, significantly altering the balance of power.
  • Turning Points: Key battles such as the Battle of Midway (1942) (US defeated Japan), El Alamein (1942), Stalingrad, and the Allied invasion of Normandy (D-Day) in 1944 reversed the Axis advances and began the push towards their eventual defeat.
• End of the War:
  • Defeat of Germany: The war in Europe ended with the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945, following the fall of Berlin and Hitler’s suicide.
  • Defeat of Japan: Japan surrendered in August 1945, after the US dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9). With Japan's surrender, World War II finally came to an end.

What are the Consequences of World War II?

• Consequences:
  • Human Cost: The war led to an estimated 70-85 million deaths, both military and civilian, including the Holocaust, where six million Jews were killed by Nazi Germany.
  • Emergence of the Cold War: The Axis powers were defeated, leading to the fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan and the division of Germany into occupation zones.
    • The Soviet Union expanded its influence in Eastern Europe, while the US emerged as a superpower, marking the beginning of the Cold War.
  • United Nations: The UN was established in 1945 to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts.
  • Economic Recovery: The US implemented the Marshall Plan (1948) to aid in the reconstruction of war-torn western Europe.
  • Nuclear Arms Race: The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki marked the beginning of the nuclear age, leading to the nuclear arms race during the Cold War.
  • Decolonization: Many European colonial empires weakened after the war, leading to a wave of anti-colonial movements across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.
• Legacy of World War II:
  • Rise of the Cold War: The ideological and political rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union led to the Cold War, which lasted for several decades.
  • Global Realignments: The war significantly reshaped international relations, leading to the formation of new alliances and influencing the political, economic, and social landscapes of the world in the decades that followed.

What was India’s Role in World War II?

• Part of the British Empire: At the time of World War II, India, along with Pakistan and Bangladesh, was a colony under British rule.
• Unilateral Declaration of War: The British government, led by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, declared India’s involvement in the war without consulting Indian political leaders, sparking discontent.
• Massive Contribution of Soldiers: India sent over 2.5 million soldiers to fight in various theatres of war under British command, making it the largest volunteer army in the world.
• Support for the Allied Nations: Indian troops fought on all major fronts, including Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. They played a crucial role in liberating Italy and providing critical supplies to the war effort.
  • Their participation in the Battle of Monte Cassino in Italy was pivotal.
• India with Axis Powers: During World War II, Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army (INA) with support from Japan.
  • The INA fought alongside Japanese forces against the British in Southeast Asia, including regions like Myanmar and Thailand, aiming to secure India's independence from British rule.

How did Indians View World War II?

• Opposition to British Rule: The Indian National Congress (INC) provincial governments resigned in 1939 in protest against the unilateral decision of the Governor General of India Lord Linlithgow to involve India in the Second World War.
  • They demanded that India’s political future should be decided by its own people after the war.
• Support for Independence: Many Indians, particularly under leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, saw the war as an opportunity to demand independence from Britain.
  • They believed Britain’s weakened position during the war could be leveraged to achieve freedom.
• Conditional Support: Some factions, including the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha, supported the British war effort, hoping that India’s contribution would result in leniency and eventual independence.

What was the Impact of World War II on India?

• Increased Nationalism: The war and the British response fueled a new wave of nationalism, particularly after the creation of the Indian National Army (INA) by Subhas Chandra Bose, which fought alongside the Japanese in Southeast Asia.
• Economic Strain: The war had a devastating impact on India’s economy, causing inflation, high taxes, corruption, and famines.
  • The Bengal famine of 1943, one of the most catastrophic, led to millions of deaths.
• Post-War Independence Movement: The impact of the war made it increasingly difficult for Britain to maintain its empire. By the end of the war, the demand for Indian independence was undeniable.
  • Additionally, many Indians who returned from the war realized they had fewer civil liberties compared to Europeans, further fueling the demand for independence and paving the way for India’s independence in 1947.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Analyze the causes that led to the outbreak of World War II and its global impact. How did these events shape India’s political landscape?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Mains

Q. “There arose a serious challenge to the Democratic State System between the two World Wars.” Evaluate the statement. (2021)

Q. To what extend can Germany be held responsible for causing the two World Wars? Discuss critically. (2015)

Assessing Universal Basic Literacy in India

For Prelims: National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, New India Literacy Programme, Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), National Sample Survey

For Mains: Methods of Evaluating Universal Literacy, Government Strategies for Universal Literacy, Socio-Economic Implications of Literacy Levels.

Source: EPW

Why in News?

Recently, the 79^th round of the National Sample Survey (NSS), conducted between July 2022 and June 2023, revealed that 95.9% of individuals in India possess basic literacy and numeracy skills.

• The survey assesses the literacy and basic numeracy skills of Indians aged 15–29, focusing on reading, writing, and arithmetic abilities.

What are the Key Findings of the Survey?

• In rural areas, 95.3% of individuals have basic literacy and numeracy skills, compared to 97.4% in urban areas.
  • Specifically, 97.4% of rural males and 93.4% of rural females possess these skills, while in urban areas, 98% of males and 96.7% of females meet this standard.
• States like Mizoram (100%), Goa (99.9%), and Sikkim (99.9%) lead in literacy rates, while Bihar (91.9%) and Uttar Pradesh (92.3%) lag behind.

Note: The NSS defines literacy as the ability to read, write, and understand a simple message in any language.

• The term “universal” generally implies full or near-complete coverage, typically close to 100%.
• As per UNESCO, literacy extends beyond reading, writing, and counting; it's a continuous skillset involving identification, understanding, and communication, expanding to digital, media, and job-specific skills in our fast-changing, information-rich world.

What are the Government Strategies to Enhance Literacy and Numeracy Rates?

• ULLAS (Understanding of Lifelong Learning for All in Society)
• National Education Policy (NEP) 2020
• New India Literacy Programme
• National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning
• Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
• PRAGYATA
• National Literacy Mission (NLM): The NLMA manages the Saakshar Bharat Programme (SBP), which enhances adult literacy across India by focusing on functional literacy for daily life skills.

How Universal is Universal Basic Literacy?

• Inconsistent Definitions: The term "basic literacy" lacks a universally accepted definition. For instance, the National Literacy Mission defines literacy as the ability to read and write in any language, which appears to be a very narrow interpretation of literacy.
• Data Inconsistency: According to the NSS, 95.9% of youth possess basic literacy and numeracy skills, indicating near-universal proficiency.
  • However, the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2023 highlights a contrasting scenario, with 29% of students aged 14–18 in Class 10 or below unable to read at a second-grade level.
• Sampling Bias: Many literacy assessments suffer from sampling bias, where certain demographics (e.g., rural populations, marginalized communities) are underrepresented.
  • For individuals never enrolled in formal education, NSS’s questions determines their ability to read and write based on self-reporting without formal tests.
  • For those enrolled in formal education, literacy was assumed if they had completed at least pre-primary or Class 1, without verifying their ability to read and write.
    • This method may not accurately reflect basic literacy skills.
• Disability Exclusion: Existing frameworks often overlook the needs of individuals with disabilities.
  • Non-accounting of literacy programs for this demographic leads to gaps in understanding their unique challenges and barriers to achieving basic literacy.

What are the Socio-Economic Implications of Literacy Levels in India?

• Economic Growth: High literacy rates contribute to economic development by enhancing workforce productivity and innovation.
  • A literate population is better equipped to engage in skilled labour, which is essential for India's transition to a knowledge-based economy.
• Social Empowerment: Literacy empowers individuals, particularly women, by providing access to information and resources necessary for making informed decisions.
  • It plays a critical role in reducing poverty levels and improving health outcomes within communities.
  • The World Bank says universal primary education could reduce extreme poverty by 12%.
• Regional Disparities: Significant regional variations exist, with states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh showing lower literacy rates that can hinder overall national progress.
• Long-term Development Goals: The findings align with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs-4).
  • Ensuring universal access to quality education is vital for sustainable development and social equity.
• Health and Well-being: Literacy enhances health outcomes as literate individuals better understand health information, access services, and make informed choices.
  • Educated women are 50% more likely to immunize their children, improving future generations' health.
• Social Cohesion and Stability: Literacy enhances social cohesion by encouraging critical thinking and reducing social tensions.
  • Institute of Social Studies Trust (ISST) found communities with higher literacy rates have lower violence and social unrest levels.

What Strategies Can Enhance Literacy and Numeracy Rates in India?

• Standardised Definitions and Metrics: Establishing a universal definition of basic literacy and standardised metrics for assessment can help create a more coherent framework for measuring progress across different regions.
• Inclusive Assessment Practices: Developing assessment tools that account for diverse learning environments and populations, including those with disabilities, can provide a more accurate picture of literacy levels.
• Strengthening Teacher Training: Investing in teacher training equips educators with essential skills, especially in resource-limited rural areas. Continuous professional development keeps teachers updated on best practices like Finland and Singapore.
• Community Engagement Programs: Initiatives that involve local communities in promoting education can foster a culture of learning and increase enrollment rates.
  • The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) aims to promote inclusive education, but expanding these centers can further support marginalized groups.
• Leveraging Technology: Utilising digital platforms like SWAYAM Prabha portal for educational content delivery can enhance access to learning resources, especially in remote areas.
  • Mobile learning applications like E-PG Pathshala can be developed to provide interactive learning experiences for youth.
  • The Digital India initiative aims to bridge the digital divide, ensuring that students have access to online resources.
• Quality of Education: The Kothari Commission advocated for a curriculum that is relevant to the needs of society and the economy.
  • Updating curricula to include practical skills and contemporary knowledge can help students become more employable and engaged in their communities.

Drishti Mains Question

Q. Discuss the concept of universal literacy. Assess how youth literacy and numeracy in India affect socio-economic development and identify strategies to overcome challenges.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. Which of the following provisions of the Constitution does India have a bearing on Education? (2012)

1. Directive Principles of State Policy
2. Rural and Urban Local Bodies
3. Fifth Schedule
4. Sixth Schedule
5. Seventh Schedule

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3, 4 and 5 only

(c) 1, 2 and 5 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Ans- (d)

---

Mains

Q1. How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the education system in the country? Elaborate on your answer. (2020)

Q2. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail. (2021)

Moiré Materials and Superconductivity

Source: TH

Why in News?

A recent Nature study found that moiré materials made from semiconductors can also be superconducting, a property previously thought to be exclusive to graphene.

What are the Key Facts About Moiré Materials?

• About: Moiré materials are materials having unique properties due to the interference pattern formed when two repetitive structures are overlaid at a slight angle.
• Creation of Moiré Materials: Moiré materials are created by stacking two layers of a two-dimensional (2-D) material, such as tungsten diselenide, and twisting one layer at a small angle (3.65º).
  • The twist between the layers creates a unique moire pattern that gives rise to new electronic behaviors not present in individual layers.
• Electronic Properties: The twist in layers creates flat bands in the electronic structure, where electrons move slowly with nearly constant energy.
  • This slow movement boosts electron-electron interactions, crucial for superconductivity.
• Research on Tungsten Diselenide (tWSe₂): tWSe₂, a semiconductor moiré material, demonstrated superconductivity at a transition temperature of approximately –272.93º C, comparable to that of high-temperature superconductors.
  • The superconducting state in tWSe₂ was found to be more stable than in other moiré materials.
• Comparison with Graphene Superconductors: Graphene-based moiré materials achieve superconductivity through electron-lattice interactions and flat band formation, while tWSe₂ relies on electron-electron interactions, making it more stable and potentially more robust.
  • Electron-lattice interactions are the interactions between electrons and the atomic lattice (the arrangement of atoms) in a material's crystal structure.
• Significance of Findings: Stable superconductivity at low temperatures enables practical applications in quantum computing and electronics.
  • It can aid in designing new materials for future technologies.

Note: Superconductivity is the property of certain materials to conduct direct current (DC) electricity without energy loss when they are cooled below a critical temperature (Tc).

• These materials also expel magnetic fields as they transition to the superconducting state.
• Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes. For this discovery, he won the 1913 Nobel Prize in Physics.
• E..g., MRI machines use an alloy of niobium and titanium.

Read more: Allotropes of Carbon

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q.Which one of the following is the context in which the term "qubit" is mentioned?

(a) Cloud Services

(b) Quantum Computing

(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies

(d) Wireless Communication Technologies

Ans: (b)

Telecommunications (Critical Telecommunication Infrastructure) Rules, 2024

Source: HT

Why in News?

Recently, the Telecommunications (Critical Telecommunication Infrastructure) Rules, 2024, were released under the Telecommunications Act, 2023.

• It aims to regulate telecom networks designated as Critical Telecommunication Infrastructure (CTI) based on their potential impact on national security, economy, public health, or safety.
• In another development, Telecommunications (Temporary Suspension of Services) Rules, 2024 came into effect replacing the Telecom Suspension Rules, 2017.

What are the Provisions of the Telecommunications (CTI) Rules, 2024?

• Data and Network Access: Telecom entities whose networks are designated as CTI must give access to government-authorised personnel to inspect hardware, software and data of certified CTI parts.
• Oversight and Reporting: The rules require appointment of a chief telecom security officer (CTSO) to oversee implementation.
  • Entities must report cyber security incidents within 6 hours.
• Required Documentation: The telecom entity must provide the government with CTI network details, authorized personnel, hardware/software inventory, vulnerabilities, crisis management plans, security audits, compliance reports, and service level agreements (SLAs).
• Repair and Upgradation: Remote repair or maintenance of CTI from outside India requires prior written government approval.
  • For upgrades to software or hardware, entities must submit test reports for government review.
• Government Standards: All CTI hardware, software, and spares must comply with government standards, including Essential, Interface, and Security Assurance Requirements, and other notified standards.

What are Telecommunications (Temporary Suspension of Services) Rules, 2024?

• Mandatory Publication: All orders suspending telecom services, including internet shutdowns, must be published with specific reasons, geographical area, and duration.
  • The suspension duration cannot exceed 15 days.
• Competent Authority: The suspension order can only be issued by the "competent authority," which is the union home secretary for the central government and the state home secretary for states.
• Review Mechanism: A review committee is required to meet within 5 days of an order’s issuance to review its validity.
  • The central review committee is chaired by the cabinet secretary while the state committee is chaired by the chief secretary.
• Nodal Officers: Licensed service providers must appoint a nodal officer per service area to receive and implement suspension orders.
• Secure Communication: Only officers ranked superintendent of police or higher can communicate these orders, in writing or via secure electronic means.

Note: In the Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India, Case 2020, the Supreme Court emphasized that government-imposed restrictions on Internet access must be temporary, limited, lawful, necessary, and proportionate.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q.In India, the term “Public Key Infrastructure” is used in the context of (2020)

(a) Digital security infrastructure

(b) Food security infrastructure

(c) Health care and education infrastructure

(d) Telecommunication and transportation infrastructure

Ans: (a)

Q. In India, which of the following review the Independent regulators in sectors like telecommunications, insurance, electricity, etc.? (2019)

1. Ad Hoc Committees set up by the Parliament

2. Parliamentary Department Related Standing

Committees

3. Finance Commission

4. Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission

5. NITI Aayog

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 3, 4 and 5

(d) 2 and 5

Ans: (a)

High-Altitude Sickness

Source: TH

The recent death of a trekker from Kerala due to high-altitude sickness (HAS) or Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) while attempting to scale a peak in Uttarakhand has brought attention to the dangers of trekking in the mountains.

• Popular trekking routes often exceed 3,000 meters, increasing the risk of AMS among unacclimatised trekkers.
• High-altitude sickness occurs when individuals ascend rapidly to elevations above 2,400 meters, without adequate acclimatisation.
  • As altitude rises, both air pressure and oxygen levels drop, causing hypoxia, which is a shortage of oxygen in the body's tissues.
  • Symptoms include headaches, nausea, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
• Severe cases of HAS/AMS can lead to High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) and High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE), both life-threatening conditions requiring immediate descent.
  • At high altitudes, the body adapts by increasing breathing (can cause hyperventilation) and producing more red blood cells, thickening the blood and straining the heart.
  • HAPE causes lung fluid buildup, and worsening breathing, while HACE leads to confusion, hallucinations, and coma.
• Treatment Strategies:
  • Supplemental oxygen or a portable hyperbaric chamber can help alleviate symptoms of AMS and HACE in emergencies.
  • Pharmacological treatments, such as acetazolamide and dexamethasone, may provide short-term relief.

Readmore...

CCI Imposes Fine on Meta

Source: HT

Recently, the Competition Commission of India (CCI) imposed a penalty of Rs 213.14 crore on Meta for abusing its dominant position through WhatsApp's 2021 privacy policy update.

• This ruling prohibits WhatsApp from sharing user data with other Meta companies for advertising purposes and mandates that user consent must be obtained for any data sharing.
  • The CCI found that WhatsApp's 2021 policy update forced users to accept expanded data collection terms without an option to opt out, constituting an unfair condition under the Competition Act.
  • The new policy may enable commercial exploitation and political micro-targeting.
  • The ruling mandates WhatsApp to provide clear explanations regarding data-sharing practices, enhancing transparency for users.
• WhatsApp's policy also conflicts with the Srikrishna Committee report, which forms the basis of the Data Protection Bill 2019, including data localisation and limiting data use to its original purpose.
• The Competition Commission of India (CCI) is a statutory body responsible for enforcing the Competition Act of 2002.

Read more...

Red Sea

Source: HT

Seventeen foreign tourists are missing after a yacht capsized in the Red Sea off the coast of Egypt, amid warnings of turbulent sea conditions.

• The Red Sea is a major hub for international tourism, known for its diving spots and vibrant marine life.
• Red Sea: It is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia.
  • An inlet is a narrow strip of water that goes from a sea or lake into the land or between islands
• Bordering Countries: Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti.
  • Red Sea, connected to the Indian Ocean in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden.
  • The northern Red Sea features the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez, which leads to the Suez Canal.
• It occupies a part of the Great Rift Valley (Afro-Arabian Rift Valley).

Read more...

Dark Tourism

Source: TH

• The war in Ukraine has sparked the rise of "dark tourism," where visitors travel to conflict zones to witness the aftermath of war and its effects on local communities. This type of tourism, also known as thanatourism or grief tourism, involves visiting sites tied to death and tragedy.
• Ukrainian officials and residents have mixed reactions, viewing it as either a source of income or "blood money."
• Dark Tourism India:
  • Kuldhara Village, Jaisalmer: An abandoned village with numerous myths and eerie(strange and frightening) stories, now a historical site managed by the Archaeological Survey of India.
  • Cellular Jail, Port Blair (Kala Pani): A colonial-era prison where freedom fighters endured severe torture; now a national museum showcasing India’s dark history under British rule.
  • Roopkund Lake, Uttarakhand (Skeleton Lake): A mysterious lake with skeletal remains of hundreds, whose origins remain unsolved.
  • Lothal, Gujarat: A significant site of the Indus Valley Civilization, Lothal is an ancient city offering a glimpse into one of the oldest urban settlements in the world.
  • Dumas Beach, Surat: Known for its haunted reputation and eerie folklore, attracts paranormal enthusiasts.

Read more...