PM Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana

Source: FE 

Why in News?  

A Parliamentary Standing Committee (PSC) report has raised concerns over the underperformance of the Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana (PM-SMY), a pension scheme for workers in the unorganised sector. 

• What is the Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana? 
• About: It is a Central Sector Pension Scheme launched in 2019, administered by the Ministry of Labour and Employment, and Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) acts as the Pension Fund Manager. 
• Target Beneficiaries: The scheme targets unorganised workers aged 18 to 40, such as street vendors, domestic workers, construction labourers, and agricultural workers, with a monthly income up to Rs 15,000. 
• Contribution: Workers are required to make monthly contributions (premium) ranging from Rs 55 to Rs 200, depending on their entry age, with the government matching their contribution. 
• Pension Benefits: The scheme promises a pension of Rs 3,000 per month after the worker turns 60. However, if the worker dies before 60, there is no lump sum payment to their family. 
  • In case of the subscriber’s demise, their spouse will receive 50% of the pension amount as family pension.  

What are the Highlights of the PSC Report on PM-SMY? 

• Poor Performance of PM-SMY: The PM-SYM scheme has seen dismal performance due to low enrolment and reduced government funding.  
  • Government contributions halved over two years, with actual expenditure dropping to Rs 162.51 crore in FY 2023-24 from Rs 324.23 crore in FY 2021-22. 
    • The reduction in expenditure reflects a drop in contributions from both workers and the government, further undermining the scheme's viability. 
  • The PM-SYM aimed to enroll 100 million workers by 2023 but reached only 5 million by FY24, covering less than 1% of the 565 million-strong unorganised workforce. 
    • However, the government has extended the scheme for another year, until 2025-26, while awaiting a revision to enhance its appeal. 
• Reasons for Poor Performance: 
  • Income Challenges: Irregular income and unstable employment make it difficult for unorganised workers, especially daily wage earners, to afford the monthly premium of Rs 55- Rs 200, further reducing their ability to participate. 
  • Impact of Covid-19: The pandemic worsened the financial situation for many unorganised workers, hindering their ability to contribute to the scheme. 
  • Structural Barriers: Lack of a formal employer-employee relationship in the unorganized sector leads to challenges for workers in accessing the scheme due to insufficient documentation and awareness. 
  • Existing Pension Alternatives: The presence of other pension schemes like Atal Pension Yojana (APY) may cause confusion, leaving workers uncertain about which one to opt for. 
• Recommendations for Revamping the Scheme: 
  • Expand Entry Age: Increase the eligibility age from 40 years to 50 years to include older unorganised workers. 
  • Scheme Merger: Combine PM-SMY with APY and Pradhan Mantri Laghu Vyapari Maan-Dhan Yojana for better alignment and coverage. 
  • e-Shram Portal: The e-Shram portal, with a database of over 305 million workers, can play a critical role in onboarding beneficiaries for PM-SMY. 
    • Integrating PM-SMY with the e-Shram database could streamline enrolment and ensure wider reach.  
  • Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Introduce subsidies to cover contributions for workers who cannot afford to pay out of pocket. 
  • Awareness Campaigns: Launch targeted outreach programs to improve awareness and reduce misinformation about the scheme. 

Who are Unorganised Workers? 

• About: The term unorganized worker, as defined under the Unorganized Workers' Social Security Act, 2008, refers to home-based workers, self-employed workers, or wage workers in the unorganized sector. 
  • Additionally, workers in the organized sector are also classified as unorganized if they are not covered under key labor laws, including the Employees' Compensation Act, 1923, Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948, Provident Funds Act, 1952, Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, or the Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972. 
• Initiatives for Unorganized Workers: 
  •  e-Shram Portal 
  • Atal Pension Yojana 
  • Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY) 
  • Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan-dhan (PM-SYM) 
  • Mahatma Gandhi Bunkar Bima Yojana 
  • Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana 
  • Ayushman Bharat-Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY) 

Drishti Mains Question:  Discuss the challenges faced by the Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana and suggest measures to improve its effectiveness.

20 Years of Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004

Source: TH 

Why in News?  

• 26^th December 2024, marked the 20^th anniversary of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. 

What was the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami? 

• Origin and Cause: The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.1, making it the third-largest earthquake [Others two: Chile, 1960 (magnitude 9.5) and Alaska, 1964 (magnitude 9.2)] recorded globally since 1900. 
  • The earthquake originated in the Sunda Trench, where the Indo-Australian plate subducts beneath the Burma microplate (part of the Eurasian plate). 
• Geographic Impact: It affected an astounding 1,300 km from Sumatra in the south to the Coco Islands in the north.  
  • The earthquake’s tremors were felt across Indonesia, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. 
  • In Car Nicobar, the Indian air force base was completely destroyed, underscoring the scale of destruction. 
• Death and Displacement: The tsunami resulted in an estimated over 227,000 deaths, making it the deadliest tsunami in recorded history. 
  • Over 1.7 million people were displaced due to the destruction of homes and infrastructure. 
• Lessons for India: India didn't anticipate such a large event along India's eastern coast, as the only previous tsunamis occurred in 1881 (from a large earthquake near Car Nicobar island) and 1883 (from the Krakatoa explosion), both producing only small surges. 
• Reduction in Mortality: The 1999 Odisha super cyclone killed over 10,000 people while Cyclone Yaas (2021) resulted in fewer than six casualties that shows India has made significant progress in disaster risk reduction (DRR). 
  • However, infrastructure damage caused due to cyclones is still a cause of concern. E.g., Cyclone Dana (2024) caused widespread damage in Odisha that is estimated at Rs 616 crore. 

 

What Initiatives Were Taken after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami to Minimise Damages? 

• Early Warning Systems: The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) was established in 2007 by the Union Ministry of Earth Sciences. 
  • ITEWC operates from the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) in Hyderabad, using seismological stations, bottom pressure recorders, and tidal stations across the Indian Ocean basin to detect and issue early warnings for potential tsunamis. 
    • The ITEWC functions as an approved Tsunami Service Provider of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning & Mitigation System (IOTWMS) that is an integral part of the Global Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System. 
  • Global, there are around 150 stations worldwide monitoring seismic activity, and Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) buoys track changes in pressure on the seafloor to detect tsunami generation. 

 

• Real-time Monitoring: Real-time ocean monitoring systems were developed to detect tsunami-producing earthquakes and issue alerts in as little as 10 minutes. 
  • India became the 5^th country globally to have an advanced tsunami warning system, joining the US, Japan, Chile, and Australia. 
  • Globally, sea-level monitoring stations have increased from just one in 2004 to 14,000 today, to detect rising sea levels and potential tsunamis. 
• Technological Advancements: The early warning systems now use better algorithms and faster supercomputers enabling rapid modeling, allowing for faster and more accurate predictions of tsunami behavior. 
• Tsunami Geology Research: The work of tsunami geology, pioneered by Brian Atwater of the US Geological Survey started to search for evidence of tsunamis in history.   
  • Investigations of mangrove swamps and coastal areas led to the discovery of past tsunami events (1,000 years ago) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Mahabalipuram (a port of the Pallava dynasty). 
• Research on Slow Slips: Researchers started studying seismic slips at plate boundaries to understand the processes that occur before and after major earthquakes. 
  • Investigations indicated a perceptible downward ground movement in South Andaman between 2003 and 2004, before the megathrust earthquake of 2004. 
• Nuclear Plant Vulnerability Studies: Following the 2004 tsunami, researchers assessed the vulnerability of nuclear power plants, such as Kalpakkam, to tsunami risks. 
  • The Kalpakkam nuclear plant shut down automatically due to rising water levels and the reactor restarted after six days. 
• Inundation Studies: Tsunami modelling using mathematical tools helped identify inundation limits and assess risks to coastal infrastructure. 
• Focus on High-Risk Areas: Experts began to study other high-risk areas like the Makran Coast (Iran and Pakistan) and the Myanmar coast. 
  • The Makran Coast could direct a tsunami towards India's west coast,  impacting Mumbai and nuclear reactors. 
• Global Cooperation: The tsunami warning system has become more globally coordinated, with countries working together to monitor earthquakes and tsunamis. 
  • E.g., After the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) was tasked with establishing global tsunami warning services across ocean basins.   

Conclusion 

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami highlighted critical gaps in early warning systems, prompting significant advancements in global and regional tsunami preparedness. Initiatives such as the establishment of ITEWC, enhanced monitoring, and international cooperation have drastically improved disaster response, yet challenges remain, particularly in developing nations. 

Drishti Mains Question:  Discuss the initiatives taken post-2004 Indian Ocean tsunami to improve early warning systems.

Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector Enterprises 2023-24

Source: PIB 

Why in News?  

Recently, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has released the results of Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector Enterprises (ASUSE) for 2023-24 for the reference period October 2023 – September 2024. 

• A reference period is a specific time frame used for collecting and analyzing data or statistics. 

What is ASUSE? 

• About: ASUSE exclusively measures various economic and operational characteristics of unincorporated non-agricultural establishments in manufacturing, trade and other services sector (excluding construction). 
  • Unincorporated non-agricultural establishments are enterprises in the unorganised or informal sector, comprising MSMEs, household units including those with hired workers, and own-account enterprises.  
• Coverage: 
  • Geographic: Rural and urban areas of the whole of India (except the villages in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which are difficult to access). 
  • Sector Wise: Unincorporated non-agricultural establishments belonging to three sectors viz., Manufacturing, Trade and Other Services. 
  • Ownership: Proprietorship, partnership (excluding Limited Liability Partnerships), Self-Help Groups (SHGs), cooperatives, societies/trusts etc. 
• Survey Timeline: The first full ASUSE was conducted in 2021-22 (April 2021 - March 2022), followed by the 2^nd survey from October 2022 to September 2023. 
  • The current 3^rd survey (ASUSE 2023-24) was conducted from October 2023 to September 2024. 
• Sample Size: In ASUSE 2023-24, data were collected from a total of 4,98,024 establishments (2,73,085 in rural and 2,24,939 in urban) from 16,842 surveyed first stage units (8,523 in rural and 8,319 in urban). 
  • First stage units were census villages in rural areas and blocks in urban areas.  

What are the Key highlights of the ASUSE 2023-24 Results? 

• Growth in Establishments: Total number of establishments increased by 12.84%, from 6.50 crore in 2022-23 to 7.34 crore in 2023-24. 
  • The "Other Services" sector showed the highest growth at 23.55%, followed by the manufacturing sector with a 13% increase. 

 

• GVA Growth: Gross Value Added (GVA) rose by 16.52%, driven largely by a 26.17% growth in the "Other Services" sector. 
  • GVA per worker increased by 5.62%, rising to Rs. 1,49,742 in 2023-24 from Rs. 1,41,769 in 2022-23. 

• Output per Establishment: Gross Value of Output (GVO) per establishment grew by 6.15% from Rs. 4,63,389 to Rs. 4,91,862 in current prices. 
  • GVO refers to the total value of goods and services produced by an establishment during a specific period. 
• Labour Market Performance: The sector employed over 12 crore workers, an increase of more than one crore from 2022-23, signaling robust labour market growth. 
  • "Other Services" sector saw the highest annual growth of 17.86%, followed by manufacturing with 10.03%. 
• Female Entrepreneurship: Female-owned proprietary establishments rose from 22.9% in 2022-23 to 26.2% in 2023-24, indicating a positive trend in women’s business ownership. 

 

• Improvement in Wages: Average emoluments for hired workers increased by 13% in 2023-24, with the highest growth observed in the manufacturing sector (16%). 
• Digital Penetration: Establishments using the internet grew significantly, from 21.1% in 2022-23 to 26.7% in 2023-24, highlighting a strong trend toward digital adoption in business operations. 

 

What is the Importance of Unincorporated Non-agricultural Units in the Indian Economy? 

• Employment Providers: The Economic Survey of 2018-19 reports that 93% of India's workforce is employed in the informal sector, making it the largest employment provider. 
• Regional Balance: Informal enterprises help reduce regional imbalances by industrialising rural areas and providing employment to individuals with limited capital.  
• Entrepreneurship: Small informal firms foster entrepreneurship, particularly for vulnerable groups such as women, youth, and individuals in marginalized communities.  
• Support for the Formal Sector: It provides goods and services to the formal sector that may not be efficiently produced by larger firms, or by supporting the supply chains of formal enterprises. 
• Dynamic Role: The unincorporated sector accounts for 38% of firms in services, 35% in trade (mainly retail), and 27% in manufacturing highlighting the importance of informal enterprises across different sectors. 

What Challenges Related to Unincorporated Non-agricultural Units in India? 

• Gender Disparities: Women make up a significant portion of the informal workforce, yet they face severe disadvantages, including lower wages, income instability, and the absence of social security. 
• Vulnerability to Uncontrollable Factors: During the monsoon season in India, construction activities often come to a halt, leaving migrant workers without steady work. 
• Lack of Employment Protections: Informal employment by nature lacks the protections and benefits associated with formal employment, such as written contracts, minimum wages, paid leave, and regulated working hours. 
• Tax Evasion: Many firms evade taxes by concealing revenue and expenses from the legal system resulting in a substantial loss of government revenue. 
• Challenges in Growth: Long-term stagnation remains a concern, with the sector's growth rate from 2015-2023 showing minimal expansion of only 2%. 
• Absence of Accurate Data: The Economic Survey of 2018-19 states that 93% of India's workforce is informal, while the Niti Aayog's Strategy for New India at 75 estimates it at 85%. 
• 'Report of the Committee on Unorganised Sector Statistics' of the National Statistical Commission (NSC), 2012 claims over 90% of the workforce is informal, though sources are not specified. 

Way Forward 

• Encouraging Formalization: Encourage formalization by simplifying registration processes, reducing taxes for small firms, and providing incentives for businesses to comply with labor and safety standards.  
• SHGs for Empowerment: Establishing self-help groups (SHGs) can provide informal employees with the tools and support they need to improve their working conditions and economic security. 
• Comprehensive Database: Collecting detailed data on the informal economy helps policymakers make informed decisions, design targeted interventions, and assess policy impact. 
• Equal Pay for Equal Work: The government should enforce measures ensuring equal pay for equal work, as per Article 39(d) of the Directive Principles of State Policy. 
• Capacity Development: Offer skill development programs for informal workers, covering trades like carpentry, plumbing, tailoring, food processing, digital literacy, and soft skills. 
  • Introduce apprenticeship and mentoring programs for experienced workers to train newcomers. 

Drishti Mains Question:  Assess the role of unincorporated non-agricultural establishments in the Indian economy

Aviation and its Impact on Emissions

 

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

A study published in journal Nature found that the aviation sector is one of the top global contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, with private jets having a much higher carbon footprint per passenger.  

• India's private aviation sector is in its early stages but is experiencing rapid growth, driven by the country's growing wealth. 

What is the State of Emission from the Aviation Sector? 

• Aviation Sector: 
  • As per International Energy Agency (IEA), aviation contributed 2% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions in 2022, with emissions reaching around 800 Mt CO₂, approximately 80% of Covid-19 pandemic levels. 
    • Aviation emissions have grown faster than rail, road, or shipping in recent decades. 
  • The aviation sector would rank among the top 10 emitters worldwide if it were treated as a single nation. 
• Emissions from Private Aviation: The study found that emissions from private aviation increased by 46% between 2019 and 2023. 
  • Private jets emit 5 to 14 times more CO2 per passenger than commercial flights and are 50 times more polluting than trains on a per-passenger basis. 
  • It also releases nitrogen oxides (NOx) and other green-houses gases such as vapor trails, which further exacerbate the environmental impact. 

What are the Potential Solutions to Decarbonize the Aviation Sector? 

• Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs): SAFs (tested by airlines like SpiceJet and Air Asia) are bio-based or waste-derived fuels that are chemically similar to conventional jet fuel but have a significantly lower carbon footprint. 
  • Potential Benefits: 
    • Carbon Emission Reduction: SAFs can reduce lifecycle carbon emissions by up to 80%, depending on the feedstock and production method. 
    • Compatibility: SAFs are drop-in fuels that can be used in existing aircraft engines and infrastructure without major modifications, offering a near-term solution for emission reduction. 
    • Diverse Feedstocks: SAF production can leverage a wide range of feedstocks (like algae, agricultural residues, waste oils, or municipal solid waste), reducing dependence on fossil fuels and offering flexibility in supply chains. 
  • Challenges: 
    • High Cost: SAFs are currently more expensive than conventional jet fuels, making them less competitive in the market. 
    • Limited Production: The global production capacity of SAFs remains limited, and scaling up production to meet the demand of the aviation industry requires significant investment and infrastructure development. 
    • Sustainability: While SAFs reduce emissions, their production must be sustainable, considering factors like land-use changes, water use, and biodiversity. 
• Battery-Electric Propulsion: It involves using electricity stored in batteries to power aircraft engines, replacing conventional jet engines with electric motors to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 
  • Potential Benefits: 
    • Zero Emissions: Battery-electric aircraft produce no direct emissions, contributing to a clean, carbon-neutral future for short-haul flights. 
    • Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are more efficient than combustion engines, converting more energy from the battery into thrust. 
    • Noise Reduction: Electric propulsion reduces noise pollution, making it ideal for urban and regional airports. 
  • Challenges: 
    • Battery Limitations: Current battery technology is not suitable for long-haul flights due to limitations in energy density. 
    • Weight and Size: Batteries are heavy and take up significant space, which limits the size and payload capacity of electric aircraft. 
    • Charging Infrastructure: The widespread deployment of charging infrastructure at airports is necessary and requires significant investment and coordination. 
• Hydrogen: Hydrogen fuel offers a high energy density and emits only water vapor when combusted, making it a clean fuel alternative.  
  • Both hydrogen combustion (40% efficiency) and hydrogen fuel cells (45-50% efficiency) are under active research. 
  • Potential Benefits: 
    • Higher Energy Density: Hydrogen has three times the gravimetric energy density of kerosene, making it suitable for powering larger aircraft and longer flights. 
      • Gravimetric energy density is the available energy per unit mass of a substance. 
    • Clean Emissions: When combusted or used in fuel cells, hydrogen only produces water vapor, making it a clean alternative to fossil-based jet fuels. 
  • Challenges: 
    • Hydrogen Storage: Hydrogen's low volumetric energy density necessitates large, heavy storage tanks, challenging aviation’s need for compact, lightweight solutions.  
      • Liquid hydrogen offers higher density but introduces additional complexities, making efficient storage difficult. 
    • Infrastructure Development: Establishing refueling infrastructure at airports and ensuring the safe global transportation of hydrogen is challenging due to its high flammability.  
      • The need for specialized safety measures and skilled labor increases costs. 
    • Aircraft Redesign: Hydrogen combustion requires partial aircraft redesign, while fuel cells necessitate complete overhauls, including modifications to fuel tanks, delivery systems, and storage.  
      • This demands significant technical expertise and substantial funding for retrofitting existing aircraft. 

What are India's Initiatives for Making Air Travel Sustainable? 

• Policy Initiatives: The Indian government launched the UDAN Scheme (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik) scheme to improve rural air connectivity and NABH (Nextgen Airports for Bharat Nirman) to expand airport capacity. 
• Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs): Indian airlines have tested SAFs, with SpiceJet using a blend of jatropha oil in 2018 and AirAsia using SAF in 2023.  
• Ethanol for Aviation: India’s ethanol production supply chain could be a feasible medium-term solution for aviation fuel.  
  • Using surplus sugar to produce ethanol for aviation fuel could meet 15-20% of India’s aviation fuel demand by 2050, though care is needed to avoid land-use changes and groundwater depletion. 

Way Forward 

• Promote Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs): Scale up SAF production through public-private partnerships to reduce costs and increase availability. 
• Develop Hydrogen and Electric Propulsion: Invest in hydrogen-powered aircraft and electric propulsion technologies, focusing on storage solutions, infrastructure, and aircraft redesign. 
• Carbon Offset Initiatives: Implement carbon offset programs, such as the ICAO Carbon Emissions Calculator (ICEC), to assess and mitigate the environmental footprint of aviation activities. 
• Strengthen Infrastructure: Build infrastructure for SAF production, hydrogen refueling, and electric charging at airports with a focus on safety and efficiency. 
• Policy and Regulatory Support: Implement policies like carbon pricing, tax incentives, and stringent emissions targets to promote the adoption of green technologies in aviation. 
• Carbon Offset Programs: Establish robust carbon offset programs, such as the ICAO Carbon Emissions Calculator (ICEC), to mitigate emissions during the transition. 
• Stakeholder Collaboration: Encourage collaboration between airlines, manufacturers, and regulators to overcome technological and financial barriers to sustainable aviation. 

Conclusion 

The growth of private aviation, both globally and in India, challenges climate change efforts. While aviation is vital to the global economy, prioritizing decarbonization through innovation, policy, and sustainability is crucial. As India’s private aviation sector expands, it must focus on low-carbon technologies and responsible air travel to minimize environmental impact. 

Drishti Mains Question:  Discuss the potential solutions for decarbonizing the aviation sector, including the role of SAFs, hydrogen, and electric propulsion.

Contributions of Sir Isaac Newton

Source: TH 

Why in News?  

Sir Isaac Newton, born on 25^th December 1642, is one of history's most influential scientists. On his 382^nd birth anniversary, it is important to reflect on the groundbreaking contributions made to science, which continue to shape the understanding of the world today. 

             

Who was Isaac Newton? 

• Early Life: Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe, England. He attended Trinity College, Cambridge, where he developed interests in mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy.  
  • Upon graduating, he became a professor at Cambridge and later held the prestigious second Lucasian Chair of Mathematics. 
    • The Lucasian Chair of Mathematics, established in 1664 by King Charles II at Cambridge University, is one of the most prestigious academic positions in the world. 
  • In 1705, Queen Anne (Queen of Great Britain)  knighted Isaac Newton, giving him the title "Sir." 
• Contributions of Newton: 
  •  Laws of Motion:  
    • First Law (Inertia): Objects remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force. 
      • This principle is foundational in modern physics, explaining everything from car crashes to satellite motion in space. 
    • Second Law (Force and Acceleration): Newton established that the force on an object is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration (F=ma). 
      • This principle is applied in engineering, aerospace, and vehicle design to help structures and machines withstand forces. 
    • Third Law (Action and Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. 
      • This law underpins rocket propulsion and everyday activities like walking. 
  • Gravity (g) and Gravitation (G):  
    • Gravity: Sir Isaac Newton discovered the existence of gravity in the late 1660s.  
      • Gravity is a force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center. 
    • Universal Law of Gravitation: Newton identified that the gravitational force between two objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, meaning gravity weakens as objects move further apart. 
      • His work revolutionized the understanding of planetary motion and the forces that govern the universe. 
      • This law explains planetary motion and is vital for satellite orbits, and space exploration. 
  • Optics: His research on the nature of light led to the discovery that white light is a combination of different colors, which he demonstrated using a prism (three-dimensional solid object). 
  • Reflecting Telescope: To solve the problem of chromatic aberration (color distortion) in telescopes that used lenses, Isaac Newton created the reflecting telescope in 1668.  
    • By substituting the primary lens with a mirror, he was able to eliminate chromatic aberration and enhance image clarity.  
  • Mathematics: As a mathematician, Newton is credited with developing calculus, alongside Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a tool that greatly impacted science and engineering. 
• Notable Works: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, also known as Principia, published by Isaac Newton in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics (study of the motion of objects and the forces). 
  • Newton spent decades on alchemy (related to the study of transforming base metals into gold), while unsuccessful, his alchemical work influenced his discoveries in optics and the understanding of matter, blending chemistry with physics. 
• Legacy: The Isaac Newton Medal and Prize is an annual award given by the Institute of Physics (IOP), a society for physics in the UK and Ireland, to recognize outstanding contributions to physics. 

Mediation Council of India

Source: LM 

Why in News?  

The push for establishing a Mediation Council of India (MCI) has intensified amid growing calls for faster, cheaper dispute resolution. 

 Why is the Mediation Council of India Needed? 

• 2023 Mediation Act: The Mediation Act, 2023 mandates the creation of the Mediation Council of India (MCI).  
  • Although the government aimed to set up the MCI by the end of 2023, its formation has been delayed. 
• Role of Proposed MCI: The MCI will be responsible for setting the rules and procedures for mediation in India. 
  • It will grant authority to mediators and ensure that mediation practices adhere to established standards. 
  • The Council will oversee the education, assessment, and certification of mediators, making the process more transparent and regulated. 
• Need: A functional mediation council is essential for reducing legal bottlenecks and fostering a business-friendly environment by resolving commercial disputes more quickly and cost-effectively than arbitration. 
  • Mediation provides a flexible, less adversarial alternative to litigation, aiding in mutually agreeable settlements. An efficient MCI can reduce judicial burdens. 
  • While mediation is often court-mandated, the MCI's establishment is expected to lead more businesses to choose mediation voluntarily, enhancing its role in resolving commercial disputes. 
    • For instance, under the Commercial Court Act, 2015, parties are mandated to try mediation before entering courts.  
  • Online dispute resolution (ODR) services, including e-mediation, are set to grow rapidly. 
  • A well-regulated mediation framework will boost confidence in India’s commercial dispute resolution, enhancing its global business standing, attracting investors, and facilitating smoother transactions. 

How is Commercial Dispute Resolution Currently Handled in India? 

• Commercial Courts: Established under the Commercial Courts Act, 2015, these courts expedite the resolution of disputes involving monetary thresholds above Rs 3 Lakhs.  
  • They are staffed with judges experienced in commercial law and aim to reduce litigation delays and enhance business efficiency.  
  • Commercial courts also encourage arbitration, before formal litigation. 
• Arbitration: Governed by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, (amended in 2015, 2019, and 2021) enhances neutrality, reduces judicial intervention, and ensures timely resolutions. 
  • Arbitration, with a neutral arbitrator chosen by both parties, offers binding decisions. It can be ad hoc or institutional, such as through the Indian Council of Arbitration. 
  • The India International Arbitration Centre Act, 2019 established the India International Arbitration Centre for domestic and international arbitration. 
• Conciliation: It is an out-of-court dispute resolution method where a neutral conciliator helps parties resolve their commercial disputes.  
  • Conciliation, governed by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, helps preserve relationships by facilitating discussions and proposing solutions, without imposing decisions like Arbitration. 
• Negotiation: Negotiation is a voluntary, non-binding Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR) process where parties directly engage to settle differences without third-party intervention, commonly used in commercial disputes. 

Jallikattu

Source: TH 

The Tamil Nadu government has issued a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for safe Jallikattu events in 2025, guided by the Animal Welfare Board of India. 

• Events must adhere to Section 3(2) of the Tamil Nadu Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Conduct of Jallikattu) Rules, 2017, allowing Jallikattu only at notified locations with permissions, ensuring bull safety and cruelty prevention. 
• Tracing back over 2,000 years, Jallikattu, a traditional sport of Tamil Nadu was originally held to select a suitable bridegroom.  
  • The sport is linked to the Ayars, an ethnic group in India, and its name derives from "Jalli" (coins) and "Kattu" (tied). 
  • It is celebrated on Mattu Pongal Day (3rd day of Pongal), where a bull is released, and participants tame a bull to win coins tied to its horn.  
  • The sport uses the Pulikulam or Kangayam breed of bulls, which are highly valued for breeding and market sales. 
• A seal representing Jallikattu was found at the Indus Valley site, preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi. A 1500-year-old cave painting near Madurai also depicts the sport. 
• Different Jallikattu versions, like Vadi manjuviraṭṭu, Vēli viraṭṭu, and Vaṭam manjuviraṭṭu, have varying rules on the duration of holding the bull or the distance to cover. 

 

Read more: Jallikattu 

125th Birth Anniversary of Sardar Udham Singh

Source: 

Recently, Sardar Udham Singh's birth anniversary was celebrated on 26^th December, honoring his legacy as a symbol of India’s relentless pursuit of justice for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. 

•  Birth and Early Life: Udham Singh, born on 26^th December 1899, in Sunam, Sangrur district of Punjab, lost his parents early and grew up in the Central Khalsa Orphanage in Amritsar. 
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Witness: Singh survived the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 13^th April 1919, where British Brigadier General Reginald Dyer’s troops killed over 400 unarmed civilians under the regime of Michael O’Dwyer, Punjab’s Lieutenant Governor. 
• Revolutionary Activities: Deeply affected by the massacre, Singh joined the Ghadar Party in 1924 to mobilize Indians overseas against British rule.  
  • He was imprisoned in 1927 for five years for possession of firearms. 
• Revenge and Execution: On 13^th March 1940, Singh assassinated Michael O’Dwyer during a meeting at Caxton Hall in London, avenging the massacre.  
  • He was hanged on 31^thJuly 1940, at Pentonville Prison, London. 
• Legacy: Revered as Shaheed-i-Azam, Singh’s remains were repatriated in 1974, and memorials, museums, and colleges honor his sacrifice in Punjab and beyond.  
  • His actions symbolize unwavering resistance against colonial oppression. 

 

Read More: Sardar Udham Singh 

Human Interaction Threat to Lion-Tailed Macaques

Source: TH 

The endangered lion-tailed macaque (LTM) faces threats from increasing human interactions, driven by habitat encroachment and food provisioning. 

• Human-provided food causes malnutrition, disease, dependency, and increases risks of road accidents and human aggression. 
  • LTM is highly adaptable to human-altered environments and frequently interacts with humans. 

 

• About Lion-tailed Macaque: 
  • They are old world monkeys endemic to the Western Ghats of India. 
    • Their key habitats include the Anamalai Hills, Nelliyampathy, Nilambur Ghats, Sholayar, Gavi, Sabarimala, Vallimalai Hills and Agumbe of the Western Ghats. 
  • The lion-tailed macaque's black fur and light mane around its head and chin give it the nickname "beard ape." 
  • Dominant males of the group emit loud, human-like ‘whoops’ to alert outsiders entering their territory. 
  • Conservation Status: 
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered 
    • CITES: Appendix I 
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I 

 

Read More: Lion-Tailed Macaques 

Speed of Light

Source: TH 

The speed of light, a fundamental constant in physics, has been determined with increasing precision over centuries. 

• The speed of light is the rate at which light waves propagate through different materials. In particular, the speed of light in a vacuum is defined as exactly 299,792,458 meters per second.  
  • Light's speed can vary when it propagates through different materials, depending on the material's refractive index (measure of bending of a light ray when passing from one medium to another). 
• Early estimates of the speed of light were based on how long it took light to travel a known distance, with measurements improving as instruments advanced. 
• Ole Roemer (1676) was the first to estimate the speed of light, observing Jupiter’s moons and their varying eclipse timings based on Earth's distance from Jupiter.  
  • His estimate was 225,300 km/s, which was far from the modern value due to limited knowledge of Jupiter's distance. 
• Modern measurements of the speed of light are conducted using laser beams and atomic clocks, resulting in the current precise value. 

Read more: Time Dilation in Early Universe