Delimitation and Concerns of Southern States

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

The Union Home Minister assured that the upcoming delimitation exercise would not harm southern states and promised them a fair share of any seat increase. 

What is Delimitation? 

• About: Delimitation means the process of fixing the number of seats and boundaries of territorial constituencies in each State for the Lok Sabha and Legislative assemblies. 
  • This ‘delimitation process’ is performed by the ‘Delimitation Commission’ that is set up under an act of Parliament. 
• Delimitation Commission: It is a high powered 3 member body whose orders have the force of law and cannot be called in question before any court. 
  • It includes two Supreme Court or High Court judges, one appointed as chairman by the central government, and the Chief Election Commissioner as an ex-officio member. 
  • Its orders are presented to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies but cannot be modified. 
  • It has powers of a civil court. 
  • It has been set up four times till February 2024 i.e., 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002. 
• Rationale Behind Delimitation: Each state is divided into territorial constituencies in such a manner that the ratio between population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it is the same throughout the state. 
  • It ensures uniform representation both among different states and within constituencies of the same state.  
• Constitutional Provisions:  
  • Article 82: It provides for the readjustment of seats in the House of the people to the states and the division of each State into territorial constituencies after every census.  
  • Article 170: It provides for the composition of Legislative Assemblies. 
• Related Amendments: Population-based seat allocation favors high population growth states, so amendments were made to prevent imbalances and reward population control efforts. 
  • 42^nd Amendment Act, 1976: It froze Lok Sabha seat allocation and constituency division at the 1971 level until 2000. 
  • 84^th Amendment Act, 2001: The freeze on readjustment was extended for another 25 years until 2026. 
  • 87^th Amendment Act, 2003: It allowed delimitation based on the 2001 census without changing the number of seats or constituencies. 
• Judicial Review: In the Kishorchandra Chhanganlal Rathod Case, 2024, the Supreme Court held that an order by the Delimitation Commission can be reviewed if it is clearly arbitrary and violates constitutional values. 

Why are Southern States Concerned with Upcoming Delimitation? 

• Fear of Losing Representation: Low Southern states' population compared to Northern states may result in fewer Lok sabha seats for southern states if delimitation is solely based on population.  
  • E.g., 0% increase in the number of seats for Kerala, only a 26% increase for Tamil Nadu, but a whopping 79% for both MP and UP. 
• Gerrymandering: Southern states are concerned about gerrymandering that is a practice of manipulating electoral boundaries to unfairly favor a party or group, distorting fair representation. 
  • E.g., Under Nepal's new constitution (2015), Nepal’s Terai region, with 50% of the population, got fewer seats than the hills due to constituency demarcation favoring geography over population, benefiting the hill elite.  
• Threat to Federalism: Delimitation may increase the fiscal burden on Southern states as more seats for the North could mean higher central allocations per representative.  
  • Lower political representation of southern states compared to northern states may pressure them to accept policies they see as unfair. 
• Discouragement to Good Governance: Southern states' population control efforts could lead to fewer seats in delimitation, unfairly favoring high-fertility states and discouraging good governance. 
  • It leads to criticism of good policies and may prove counter-productive. E.g., some politicians considered incentives for larger families. 
• North-South Division: A sense of political and economic imbalance could fuel demands for greater autonomy or special status, straining national unity and deepening North-South divisions. 
• Skewed Resource Allocation: Northern states may gain more central funds and welfare schemes due to greater parliamentary influence, while southern states risk fewer resources despite better governance. 
  • The Finance Commission (FC) uses population as one of the criteria for allocating funds to states, which can be disadvantageous for southern states. 
• Weakening Regional Parties: Many fear delimitation may favor parties with strong northern bases, shifting political dynamics and weakening southern regional parties. 

Way Forward 

• Balanced Representation: Ensure no state loses its existing seat share while using a weighted formula that considers population, development indices, economic contribution, and governance quality for fair representation. 
• Equitable Resource Allocation: Revise the Finance Commission’s devolution formula to protect Southern states from financial disadvantages and strengthen inter-state councils for balanced policymaking. 
• Consensus-Building: Establish a constitutional review panel to address delimitation concerns and raise awareness about representation factors beyond population size to prevent regional discontent. 
• Bicameral Strengthening: Provide greater representation to Southern states in the Rajya Sabha to counterbalance any Lok Sabha seat reductions.

Drishti Mains Question:  Critically analyze the concerns of southern states regarding the upcoming delimitation exercise and suggest measures to ensure fair representation while maintaining national unity.

Internet Shutdowns

Source: IE 

Why in News?

A 2024 report by digital rights group ‘Access Now’ revealed a record-high number of global internet shutdowns, with Myanmar topping the list with 85 shutdowns, followed by India. 

What are the Key Findings of the Report on Internet Shutdowns?

• India: India accounted for 84 of internet shutdowns, making up 28% of all shutdowns. 
  • Manipur recorded the highest number of internet shutdowns in India with 21 instances, followed by Haryana and Jammu & Kashmir.  
  • In total, 16 states and Union Territories experienced internet restrictions in 2024. 
  • Main Reasons for Shutdowns: Shutdowns in India were primarily linked to protests (41 instances), communal violence (23 instances), and examination-related security measures (5 instances). 
    • Additional shutdowns were enforced due to local conflicts and administrative decisions. 
    • Authorities often justify shutdowns as necessary to prevent communal violence, riots, and misinformation spread via social media. 
• Global: A total of 296 internet shutdowns were recorded worldwide in 2024, the highest ever.  
  • Myanmar(85), India, and Pakistan(21) together accounted for over 64% of all recorded shutdowns in 2024. 

What Concerns Regarding Internet Shutdowns? 

• Violation of Rights:  Restricts freedom of speech and expression (Article 19) and limits Right to internet access recognized under Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty). 
• Lack of Oversight: The Telecommunications Act 2023 retains provisions from the colonial-era Telegraph Act, 1885, allowing shutdowns. 
  • There is a lack of strict independent oversight mechanisms, leading to arbitrary implementation. 
• Economic and Social Disruptions: India experienced the third-largest economic loss due to internet shutdowns in 2023, with the total cost reaching USD 255.2 million. 
  • Businesses, students, and digital service providers suffer significant losses due to prolonged shutdowns. 
• Impact on Democratic Processes: Restrictions on digital communication curtail press freedom, and democratic engagement. 
  • Shutdowns in protest-prone regions prevent citizens from exercising their right to dissent. 
• Impact on Governance: Critics claim that frequent internet shutdowns contradict India’s ambitions of becoming a global leader in Artificial Intelligence (AI), digital governance, and technological progress. 

Way Forward 

• Oversight: Introduce parliamentary scrutiny or an independent oversight body to review shutdown orders. 
• Alternative Measures: Instead of complete shutdowns, authorities can use targeted content removal, fact-checking mechanisms, and social media monitoring. 
  • Law enforcement training on digital risk management can help mitigate threats without blanket bans. 
• International Best Practices: The UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) opposes arbitrary internet shutdowns, deems blanket shutdowns human rights violations, and urges making universal internet access by 2030 as a human right. 
  • European Union and US rely on content moderation policies and cybersecurity tools instead of blackouts. 
• Public Awareness and Advocacy: Civil society groups should raise awareness on digital rights and push for legal reforms. 
  • Digital literacy campaigns can help counter misinformation without resorting to shutdowns. 

Drishti Mains Question:  How do frequent internet restrictions affect democratic engagement, press freedom, and the right to dissent in India?

Environmental Concerns Regarding Ethanol Blended Petrol

Source: TH 

Why in News?

The Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme is facing strong opposition in Andhra Pradesh (AP).  

• Environmentalists and farmers are raising concerns over environmental pollution and excessive water consumption by ethanol factories. 

What is Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme? 

• About: The EBP Programme began with pilot projects in 2001. It was launched by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas in 2003, with 5% Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) blending and extended nationwide (except Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep) by 2019, allowing up to 10% blending. 
  • The EBP Programme now targets 20% ethanol blending in petrol by 2025-26 (advanced from 2030 under the National Policy on Biofuels-2018 (amended in 2022)). As of 2024, the blend percentage stood at 15%. 
• Objective: EBP aims to reduce carbon emissions, fuel imports, and increase farmer income. 
  • Support India’s energy diversification, enhancing resilience to global oil supply disruptions. 
  • Help India achieve its Net Zero 2070 commitment under the Paris Agreement. 
  • EBP Programme follows the "Waste to Wealth" approach, supporting Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) and Make in India. 
• Key Milestones: Ethanol production capacity reached around 1,600 crore litres as of September, 2024. 
  • By cutting crude oil imports, the EBP Programme saved Rs. 1,06,072 crore in foreign exchange. 
    • EBP has reduced CO₂ emissions by 544 lakh metric tons and substituted 181 lakh metric tons of crude oil. 
  • The programme had a significant economic impact, with Oil Marketing Companies disbursing Rs. 1,45,930 crore to distillers and Rs. 87,558 crore to farmers.

What are the Environmental Concerns Regarding EBP? 

• Pollution vs. Emission Reduction: Achieving 20% ethanol blending target by 2025 requires around 1,000 crore litres of ethanol, with planned production expansion to 1,700 crore litres. Increased production may lead to greater emissions affecting air, water, and soil quality. 
• Water Scarcity: Ethanol production is highly water-intensive, with grain-based factories requiring 8–12 litres of water per litre of ethanol. Sugarcane and molasses-based production contribute to high water consumption, deforestation, and industrial waste. 
  • Distilleries generate vinasse, a pollutant-rich wastewater that can contaminate water bodies and deplete oxygen if untreated. 
  • Factories near rivers like the Krishna are diverting water meant for agriculture and drinking. Farmers fear depletion of water resources, affecting crop production. 
• Industrial Pollution: Ethanol distilleries fall under the "red category" of industries (Pollution Index core 60 and above ) due to their high pollution potential. 
  • Hazardous chemicals such as acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and acrolein are emitted, increasing risks of respiratory diseases and cancer. 
  • In AP, many ethanol factories received environmental clearances without public hearings or proper emission assessments, often located near human settlements. 

Way Forward 

• Promoting 3G Ethanol: Scaling up 3G ethanol production (produced by algae from wastewater, sewage or seawater) under the Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana can reduce environmental impact by using microalgae instead of food crops, offering a sustainable alternative to 1G and 2G methods without straining food or freshwater resources. 
• Environmental Regulations: Enforce Mandatory pollution control measures (such as effluent treatment plants) and reinstate public hearings for environmental clearances to address community concerns. 
  • Ethanol factories should be required to use recycled or treated wastewater instead of groundwater. 
• Incentivizing Green Technologies: Provide subsidies for pollution control equipment like Wind Augmentation and Air Purifying Unit (WAYU) making it more affordable for ethanol manufacturers. 
  • Research and development (R&D) in low-emission ethanol production can help minimize environmental damage.

Drishti Mains Question:  Ethanol production is seen as an eco-friendly alternative to fossil fuels. Critically examine the environmental challenges associated with ethanol production in India.

Battle of Karnal

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

The Battle of Karnal in February 1739, resulted in the decisive defeat of Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah Rangila by Persian ruler Nadir Shah, marking a pivotal turning point in Indian history. 

• It not only showcased the military prowess of Nadir Shah but also exposed the vulnerabilities of the Mughal Empire, leading to its eventual downfall. 

What are the Key Facts Related to the Battle of Karnal? 

• Background: After consolidating his rule in Persia, Nadir Shah (also known as the Napoleon of Persia) invaded Afghanistan (1738) and advanced into Mughal territory through the Khyber Pass, exploiting the empire’s instability after Aurangzeb’s death (1707).  
  • By January 1739, Nadir Shah had already captured Kabul (in June 1738) and had seized Lahore. 
• Forces: Despite having 300,000 soldiers, the Mughal army lacked coordination, while Nadir Shah’s 50,000 disciplined troops used advanced tactics like mounted musketeers with swivel guns, overpowering the Mughals’ outdated cavalry charges. 
• Battle & Loot of Delhi: Nadir Shah crushed the Mughal army (within 3 hours), killing commanders Khan Dauran and Sa’adat Khan and capturing Muhammad Shah.  
  • He then looted Delhi (capital Shahjahanabad), seizing immense wealth, including the Peacock Throne (takht-i-taus) and Koh-i-Noor diamond. 
• Impact on the Mughal Empire: The invasion left the Mughal Empire economically shattered and weakened, fueling the rise of Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the Sikhs.  
  • The invasion led to the annexation of the Mughal provinces to the west of the Indus viz., Afghanistan, Kashmir, Sindh and Multan to Persia. 
  • This decline facilitated British expansion in India in the 18th and 19th centuries. 
• Foreign Invasion Due to the Battle: Ahmad Shah Abdali, the commander of Nadir Shah, established his rule over Afghanistan after Nadir Shah's death. 
  • He invaded North India many times between 1748 and 1767. The most well known was his victory over the Marathas in 1761 (the third Battle of Panipat).  

RBI Reduces Risk Weights on NBFCs and MFIs Loans

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reduced the risk weights of bank loans to NBFCs and Microfinance Institutions to boost credit flow and enhance lending to the retail sector of the economy. 

What is the Risk Weight on Loans and How Does It Impact NBFCs and Banks? 

• About: Risk weight is a percentage factor assigned to a bank’s assets, including loans, to determine the amount of capital required to cover potential losses. 
  • Higher risk weight increases capital requirements, making loans costlier, while lower risk weight reduces capital needs, enabling more lending. 
• Criteria: Risk weights depend on credit rating, asset type, and regulations. Highly rated borrowers get lower risk weights, while low-rated ones face higher risk weights. 
• Impact of Lower Risk Weights:  
  • Encouraging Bank Lending to NBFCs: Banks need to hold less capital for loans, increasing their lending capacity to NBFCs. 
  • Positive Impact on Credit Growth: Enhanced liquidity will boost NBFC lending in housing, consumer finance, and MSMEs. The retail sector gains from improved access to credit. 
  • Enhancing Financial Stability: Boosting credit growth increases employment, income levels and financial resilience.

Hydrocarbon Exploration in Gulf of Mannar

Source: TH 

The Indian government has included a around 10,000 sq km deep-sea region of the Gulf of Mannar (GoM) in Tamil Nadu in its latest hydrocarbon exploration tender, raising concerns over its impact on marine biodiversity and local livelihoods. 

• Exploration Tender: The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, under the 10th Open Acreage Licensing Policy (a mechanism under India's Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy that allows investors to select blocks for oil and gas exploration), has included 25 offshore areas. 
• Gulf of Mannar: It is a part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean, containing 21 islands. It spans between the northwest coast of Sri Lanka and the southeast coast of India.  
  • It is bordered by Rameswaram, the Ram Sethu bridge (also known as Adam's Bridge), and Mannar Island (Sri Lanka). 
  • It receives rivers like the Tambraparni (India) and Aruvi (Sri Lanka) and hosts the Tuticorin port.  
  • It is home to the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, the first Marine Biosphere Reserve in South and South-East Asia. 
    • It hosts 117 coral species, over 450 fish species, and globally threatened species like dugongs, whale sharks, and sea turtles.

Read more: Coral Breach in Gulf of Mannar

Unusual Materials

Source: TH 

• Gallium (Ga): It is a non-radioactive metal that melts near room temperature (similar to Cesium, Rubidium, and Mercury).  
  • It exhibits the rare property of being denser as a liquid than as a solid, like Silicon, Germanium, Bismuth, and Plutonium. 

• Aerogel: Aerogel is an extremely light solid, composed mostly of air (over 99% by volume).  
  • It is made by removing the liquid component of a gel through supercritical drying, preserving its porous structure. 
• Concrete: Concrete is the second most used material after water. While strong in compression, it has low tensile strength, making it susceptible to cracking. 
  • Scientists have explored self-healing concrete using bacteria which uses Bacillus species to produce calcium carbonate upon water exposure, sealing cracks and enhancing durability. 
• Aluminium Oxynitride (ALON): ALON is a transparent ceramic compound made of aluminum, oxygen, and nitrogen. It is extremely durable and has been tested to resist armor-piercing bullets. 
• Tin (Sn): Stanene (Sn) is a one-atom-thick layer of tin atoms with a honeycomb structure, similar to graphene.  
  • It is expected to be a topological insulator, conducting electricity along its edges with minimal energy loss, while its interior remains insulting.

Read More: Moiré Materials and Superconductivity

Hague Service Convention

Source: TH 

The US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has invoked the Hague Service Convention to issue summons to Indian billionaire Gautam Adani and his associates in a securities and wire fraud case.  

• Hague Service Convention (1965): A multilateral treaty that facilitates the cross-border service of legal documents in civil or commercial matters among 84 signatory states, including India (acceded to the Convention in 2006 with certain reservations) and the US. 
• SEC’s Request to India: The SEC invoked Convention to request India's Ministry of Law and Justice to serve summons on Adani and his associates. 
• India’s Stance on Service of Process: India rejects alternative service methods under the Article 10 of the Convention, including postal service, diplomatic channels, or direct service by foreign courts. 
  • All requests must go through the Law Ministry, which can reject them if they threaten sovereignty or security. 
• Judicial Precedents on Alternative Service: Courts worldwide have debated using email and social media for summons.  
  • US courts allowed service through Facebook and email. In Punjab National Bank v. Boris Shipping Ltd. (2019), a UK court invalidated a summons served through alternative means, reaffirming India’s strict adherence to the Convention. 

4,000-Year-Old Wooden Circle of Denmark

Source: TH 

Archaeologists in Denmark have discovered a 4,000-year-old Neolithic wooden circle, resembling Stonehenge (3100–1600 BCE) in England. 

Key Findings: 

• The structure consists of 45 wooden piles arranged in a 30-meter diameter, likely used for rituals or sun worship. 
• Nearby, a Bronze Age (1700–1500 BCE) settlement was found, including a chieftain’s grave and a bronze sword. 
  • The Bronze Age was the time from around 2,000BC to 700 BC when people used bronze. 
• The discovery provides insights into Denmark’s neolithic rituals and possible cultural links with Britain through shared artifacts like pottery and graves. 

Stonehenge: 

• Stonehenge is a prehistoric megalithic monument in Wiltshire, England (3100–1600 BCE), with massive standing stones in concentric circles, likely used for astronomical, ritualistic, or burial purposes. 
• It was built with Sarsen sandstone and Bluestone, with associated monuments like the Avenue and Cursuses. 
• It was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

Read More:  Wooden Artifacts of Stone Age, World Heritage Sites in India