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  • 21 Jan 2025
  • 61 min read
Indian Heritage & Culture

Buddhism’s Global Legacy

For Prelims: Archaeological Survey of India, Buddhism, Invasion of Kalinga, Mahayana, Vajrayana, Baliyatra Festival, Nalanda University, Emperor Kumaragupta I, Gupta Empire, Aryabhata, Manuscripts, Angkor Wat, Theravada, UNESCO World Heritage Site, Ellora Caves, Ajanta Caves, Sanchi Stupa. 

For Mains: Global spread of Buddhism, Prominent Buddhist sites in India, Nalanda University. 

Source: IE 

Why in News?

The Archaeological Survey of India has uncovered a large Buddha head, a giant palm, an ancient wall, and inscribed Buddhist relics in Ratnagiri, Odisha, all believed to date back to the 8th and 9th centuries AD. 

  • It further threw light on the spread of Buddhism to southeast Asia through Odisha. 

How Odisha Helped in the Spread of Buddhism? 

  • Role of Buddha: Although there is no evidence of Buddha visiting Odisha, experts credit Buddha’s disciples Tapassu and Bhallika (merchant brothers from Utkala) as key figures in popularising Buddhism. 
  • Mauryan Influence: Emperor Ashoka's 261 BCE invasion of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) led him to embrace Buddhism, which he then spread across South and Southeast Asia. 
  • Hiuen Tsang's Visit: Studies suggest that the Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler, Hiuen Tsang, who visited Odisha in 638-639 AD, may have also visited Ratnagiri, providing insights into the region's lifestyle, culture, religion, art, and architecture. 
  • Historical Sites: Odisha has over 100 ancient Buddhist sites, including Ratnagiri, part of the Diamond Triangle with Udaygiri and Lalitgiri. 
    • Ratnagiri, a key Buddhist learning center rivaling Nalanda from the 7th-10th centuries, revealed remains like a brick stupa, monastic complexes, and votive stupas. 
    • Ratnagiri is believed to have been a hub for Mahayana and Vajrayana sects, with Tibetan texts discovered at the site. 
    • Ratnagiri's Buddha sculptures are unique for their intricate, distinctive hairstyles not seen elsewhere in India. 
  • Maritime and Trade Links: Odisha's trade with regions like Bali, Java, Sumatra, and Sri Lanka helped spread Buddhism, especially in Southeast Asia. 
    • The Baliyatra festival honors Odisha's 2,000-year-old maritime ties with Southeast Asia and its role in spreading Buddhism. 
  • Bhaumakara Dynasty: Buddhism flourished in Odisha under the Bhaumakara dynasty (8th-10th centuries), contributing to the region’s rich Buddhist heritage. 

Note:  

  • Mahayana: Mahayana, meaning "Great Vehicle" in Sanskrit, is one of the schools of Buddhism. 
    • It believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature. 
    • It originated in the 4th Buddhist Council in 72 AD in Kashmir during the rule of Kanishka and then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some areas of Southeast Asia. 
    • Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the Mahayana tradition. 
  • Vajrayana: Vajrayana means “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt”, also known as tantric Buddhism. 
    • It incorporates tantric practices, which involve complex rituals, visualizations, mantras, and meditation techniques to achieve spiritual realization. 
    • Vajrayana is primarily practiced in the Himalayan regions, including Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of Mongolia. 
  • Hinayana: It is often referred to as the "Lesser Vehicle that emphasizes nirvana, primarily through self-discipline, and meditation. 
    • It focuses on the strict adherence to monastic rules, meditation practices, and ethical conduct. 
    • In Hinayana Buddhism, the ideal is an Arhat, who achieves enlightenment, while in Mahayana, the Bodhisattva delays nirvana to aid others' enlightenment. 

Nalanda University 

  • Establishment: Nalanda University was founded by Emperor Kumaragupta I of the Gupta Empire in the 5th century CE, around 450 CE. 
    • The university flourished under the patronage of the Pala dynasty during the 8th and 9th centuries. 
    • It was located in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Bihar). 
  • International Acclaim: Nalanda, the world’s first residential university, attracted scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Southeast Asia. 
  • Admission Process: Admission to Nalanda was competitive, with rigorous interviews, and students were mentored by scholars and Buddhist masters like Dharmapala and Silabhadra. 
  • Curriculum and Subjects: The university taught a wide range of subjects, including medicine, Ayurveda, Buddhism, mathematics, grammar, astronomy, and Indian philosophy. 
    • Aryabhata, the Indian mathematician and inventor of zero, was a prominent educator at Nalanda University in the 6th century CE. 
  • Library and Manuscripts: The library, known as Dharma Gunj or Mountain of Truth, housed over nine million handwritten palm-leaf manuscripts, making it the richest repository of Buddhist knowledge. 
  • Destruction: In 1193, Islamic invader Bakhtiyar Khilji demolished the university, killed the monks and burned the valuable library. 

How Buddhism Spread to Southeast Asia? 

  • Cultural Crossroads: Indian traders, sailors, and monks helped spread Buddhism to Southeast Asia, with ports like Srivijaya (Sumatra, Indonesia) and Champa (Vietnam) serving as key centres for learning and cultural exchange from the 7th to 13th centuries. 
  • Legitimacy of Rulers: Southeast Asian rulers adopted Buddhism to strengthen their authority, aligning with figures like Buddha or Hindu deities to legitimise their rule.  
    • The Srivijaya Empire, centered in Sumatra, was a key player in the spread of Buddhism.  
  • Fusion of Hinduism and Buddhism: In Southeast Asia, Buddhism often blended with local beliefs and Hinduism.  
    • Buddhist and Hindu temples in Southeast Asia, like Angkor Wat (Cambodia) and Borobudur (Indonesia), showcase this fusion. 
  • Cultural Diffusion: Buddhism influenced the local cultures of places like Bali and Java, seen in their dance, rituals, and temple architecture.  

 Buddhism

How Buddhism Spread Globally? 

  • Southeast Asia: By the 5th century CE, Buddhism spread to Myanmar and Thailand, and by the 13th century, the Theravada school (meaning "the way of the elders") became the dominant form of Buddhism in South and Southeast Asia. 
  • China: By the 7th century CE, Buddhism had significantly influenced Chinese culture, interacting with Confucian and Daoist traditions. 
  • Korea and Japan: Buddhism spread to Korea by the 7th century CE. 
    • In the 6th century CE, Buddhism was introduced to Japan, where it blended with Shinto and other indigenous traditions. 
  • Tibet: In the 8th century CE, Buddhism, influenced by Tantric traditions from northeast India, spread to Tibet.  
    • There, it merged with the indigenous Bon religion and evolved into Vajrayana (or "Diamond Vehicle"), a distinct form of Mahayana Buddhism. 

What are the Prominent Buddhist Sites in India? 

  • Bihar: Bodh Gaya is the location where Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree. 
    • Mahabodhi Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2002, marks the spot where Buddha achieved enlightenment. 
    • In Vaishali (Bihar), Buddha declared his imminent Parinirvana and preached his final sermon. 
    • Nalanda University in Nalanda was a famous ancient center of learning, where Buddhist scholars from across the world gathered. 
  • Uttar Pradesh: At Sarnath, Buddha delivered his first sermon to his disciples, outlining the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. 
    • Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath marks the site of Buddha’s first sermon. 
    • Kushinagar is the place where Buddha passed away and attained Parinirvana (final nirvana). 
      • Ramabhar Stupa in Kushinagar is believed to be the place where Buddha was cremated. 
  • Himachal Pradesh: Dharamshala, especially McLeod Ganj, is home to the Tibetan Government-in-Exile and the Dalai Lama. It is a hub for Tibetan Buddhists. 
  • Maharashtra: Ellora Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage site, featuring rock-cut temples and sculptures of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain traditions. 
    • Ajanta Caves are famous for ancient Buddhist monasteries and beautiful murals depicting Buddha’s life. 
  • Madhya Pradesh: Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO World Heritage site, known for its Buddhist stupas, monasteries, and pillars. 

Conclusion 

Odisha’s rich Buddhist heritage, highlighted by key sites like Ratnagiri, and India’s role in spreading Buddhism across Asia reflect its global influence. With ancient universities like Nalanda and diverse Buddhist traditions, India’s contributions to global culture and religion are profound and enduring. 

Drishti Mains Question: 

Assess the role of Indian maritime trade in spreading Buddhism across Asia.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Prelims

Q. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: (2020)

  1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
  2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
  3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only  

(b) 2 and 3 only 

(c) 3 only  

(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: (b)

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term ‘paramitas’? (2020)

(a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in aphoristic (sutra) style 

(b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of Vedas 

(c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path 

(d) Powerful merchant guilds of early medieval South India 

Ans: (c)

Mains 

Q. Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate. (2020)

Q. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate (2016)

Science & Technology

Advancing Robotics in Healthcare

For Prelims: DAKSHA, Vyom Mitra, MANAV, Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Technology Park (ARTPARK), National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS), Center for Advanced Manufacturing for Robotics and Autonomous Systems (CAMRAS), SSI Mantra, Drugs & Cosmetics Act, 1940, Totally Endoscopic Coronary Artery Bypass (TECAB), master-slave console model, Three Laws of Robotics. 

For Mains: Application of Tele-Robotics in India, Measure and Regulation. 

Source; TH 

Why in News? 

India achieved a significant milestone by performing two complex heart surgeries using the country's first indigenous surgical tele-robotic system, the SSI Mantra, over a physical distance of 286 km.  

  • These procedures represent a breakthrough in robotic-assisted surgeries, reducing geographical barriers to advanced healthcare.

What is SSI Mantra?

  • About: SSI Mantra is India’s first indigenous surgical robotic system to receive regulatory approval for telesurgery. It is developed by SS Innovations. 
    • It was approved by the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO), the central regulatory authority under the Drugs & Cosmetics Act, 1940. 
  • Key Features: 
    • Ultra-low Latency: Operates at a latency of 35–40 milliseconds, enabling seamless remote operations without delay. 
    • High-precision Surgeries: Designed for procedures like Totally Endoscopic Coronary Artery Bypass (TECAB), one of the most intricate cardiac surgeries. 
    • Regulatory Approval: Recognized as the first robotic system certified for both telesurgery and remote surgical training (tele-proctoring). 
  • Working Mechanism: It operates on a Master-Slave Console Model, where: 
    • The Master surgeon console remotely controls the surgery, allowing the lead surgeon to perform precise movements.  
    • While the Slave Console near the patient executes commands with robotic instruments, enabling effective surgical care despite geographical distance. 
  • Significance: Facilitates access to expert surgical care in underserved or remote regions with limited medical facilities. 
    • Overcomes geographical barriers, ensuring that world-class surgical expertise is available even in distant locations. 
    • Minimally invasive techniques result in faster recovery times, fewer complications and reduced trauma and Improved overall patient experiences. 

What are Robots? 

  • Definition: Robots are automatic, self-controlled machines capable of performing tasks with minimal human intervention.  
    • It is a multidisciplinary field combining materials science, computer science, electronics, mechanics, and more. 
  • Parts of Robots: Includes end-effectors (similar to human hands), manipulators (analogous to arms), locomotion devices, controllers, and sensors. 
  • Types of Robots: 
    • Mobility-based: 
      • Fixed/Static: E.g., assembly robots. 
      • Mobile/Moving: Wheeled or legged robots. 
    • Ability-based: 
      • Type I: Perform tasks better than humans (e.g., cutting). 
      • Type II: Perform dangerous tasks to protect humans (e.g., space exploration). 
    • Shape-based: 
      • Mechanical Robots: Industrial robots. 
      • Animal Robots: Robo Dog: AIBO, developed by Sony. 
      • Humanoid Robots: 
        • Gynoid Robot: Female-looking robots, such as Sofia. 
        • Android Robot: Male-looking robots. 
  • Laws of Robotics: Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics create an ethical framework for robot-human interactions. 
    • A robot must not harm a human or allow harm through inaction. 
    • A robot must obey human orders, unless it conflicts with the First Law. 
    • A robot must protect its own existence, as long as it doesn't conflict with the first two laws. 
  • Note: Asimov's Zeroth Law states that a robot must prioritize humanity's well-being above individual humans, prohibiting harm to humanity or allowing harm through inaction.  
    • These ethical, non-binding laws discourage the use of robots for military purposes involving human harm. 

What are the Various Applications of Robots? 

  • Health Sector: Robotic Prosthetics where advanced robotic limbs and exoskeletons enhance mobility and functionality for amputees, improving their quality of life. 
    • Robotic Surgery: Minimally invasive procedures, faster recovery, and higher precision. 
    • Medical Service Robots: Robots for tasks like sanitization, patient monitoring, and telemedicine. 
      • Utilize UV-C light or hydrogen peroxide vapor to disinfect healthcare environments, ensuring clean and safe conditions. 
  • Industries: Robots are widely used in electronics, automotive, and metal industries, with China being the leader in installations.  
    • In India, around 8,500 robots were installed in 2023, a 59% increase from the previous year. 
  • Defense Sector: Robots in warfare can either serve as autonomous killing machines (e.g., Israel’s REX Mark II) or assist soldiers in logistics, mine detection, and surveillance. 
  • Agriculture: Agricultural robots help in tasks like crop management, precision farming, and harvesting. In India, the development of robots like Agribot is underway. 
  • Disaster Management: Robots are used for search and rescue operations, such as navigating collapsed buildings (e.g., Bandicoot robot for sewer cleaning). 
  • Space Sector: Robotic systems are integral for space missions, such as the Pragyan Rover on Chandrayaan-3 and NASA's Mars rovers. 

What is the Current Status of Robotics in India? 

  • Current Status: Between 2016 and 2021, the operational stock of industrial robots in India doubled. According to the World Robotics Report 2024, India ranked 7th globally in terms of annual industrial robot installations.  
    • However, India’s robotics ecosystem has grown more slowly compared to some developed nations. 
  • Made-in-India Robots: India has developed several notable robots like 
    • DAKSHA (Defense): Automated mobile platform with stair-climbing and IED handling capabilities. 
    • Vyom Mitra (Space): ISRO's humanoid robot for Gaganyaan missions. 
    • MANAV (Technology): India’s first 3D-printed humanoid robot with vision, sound processing, and interactive abilities. 
  • Government Initiatives: 
    • National Health Policy, 2017: Recognizes the role of technology in improving healthcare services, emphasizing robotics and other advanced solutions. 
    • Draft National Strategy on Robotics (2023): Aims to establish a Robotics Innovation Unit (RIU) to foster the development of robotics in healthcare and other sectors. The Indian government has established several research centres to foster robotics development: 
    • The Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Technology Park (ARTPARK) and the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) focus on leveraging AI and robotics. 
    • Center for Advanced Manufacturing for Robotics and Autonomous Systems (CAMRAS) aims to reduce India’s reliance on imported robotics systems. 
    • The I-HUB Foundation for Cobotics (IHFC) at IIT Delhi has launched various projects in healthcare, medical simulators, and drone applications. 
    • ISRO and Robotics: India’s space agency, ISRO, is developing humanoid robots for future manned missions. Vyom Mitra, a female robot astronaut, is set to be launched as part of India’s Gaganyaan project in 2024. 

What are the Challenges in Adopting Robotics in Healthcare? 

  • High Initial Costs: Robotic systems like SSI Mantra are expensive to acquire and maintain, posing financial challenges for many healthcare facilities, especially those with limited resources.  
    • The high upfront cost, along with ongoing maintenance and consumables, makes adoption difficult for smaller or rural hospitals, widening healthcare disparities. 
  • Training and Skill Gaps: Operating robotic surgery systems requires specialized training for surgeons and medical staff.  The setup time for robotic systems poses challenges in emergency cases like accidents. 
    • The steep learning curve and global shortage of trained professionals delay adoption, particularly in developing countries. 
  • Ethical Concerns: Telesurgery raises accountability and patient safety concerns, as errors may blur responsibility between the surgeon, institution, or system provider, while technical issues like connectivity failures could compromise outcomes and trust. 
  • Patient Trust: Patients may hesitate to trust remote surgeries, fearing that the absence of a surgeon in the room compromises safety.  
  • Job Loss: Automation leads to job displacement, especially in manufacturing, with estimates suggesting that 300 million jobs could be lost due to automation. 
  • Cybersecurity Risks: Increased connectivity exposes robots to cyber-attacks, as seen in the 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack. 

Way Forward 

  • Costs-Effective Robotics: Government support, subsidies and collaboration with private sectors and innovation in cost-effective robotics solutions can make these systems more affordable. 
    • Hospitals can consider leasing options or financing plans to distribute costs over time. 
  • Bridging Gaps: Medical schools and training centers should integrate robotic surgery training into their curricula and online platforms and virtual training can be leveraged to provide global access to specialized education. 
  • Managing Ethical Concerns: Clear frameworks and regulations need to be established to define accountability in telesurgery, ensuring that all stakeholders (surgeon, hospital, system provider) share responsibilities. 
    • Develop backup systems and fail-safes to minimize the impact of technical failures and ensure continuous patient safety during remote surgeries. 
  • Mitigating Job Loss: Upskilling and reskilling programs and promoting human-robot collaboration models where robots handle repetitive tasks while humans focus on decision-making and patient care. 
  • Addressing Cybersecurity Risks: Encryption, multi-factor authentication, and regular software updates and collaboration between healthcare institutions and cybersecurity experts will help safeguard robots and medical data from potential cyber threats. 
    • Developing standardized cybersecurity frameworks for robotic systems in healthcare can help mitigate risks and increase system reliability. 

Drishti Mains Question:  

India has demonstrated significant advancements in developing cutting-edge robotics technologies but faces several challenges. What are the main reasons for this gap in the robotics sector, suggest measures. 

  

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims:

Q. Atal Innovation Mission is set up under the (2019)

(a) Department of Science and Technology  

(b) Ministry of Labour and Employment  

(c) NITI Aayog  

(d) Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship  

Ans: (c)  

Mains

Q. COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic. (2020)

Social Justice

Rising Global Inequality

For Prelims: Inequality, Purchasing Power Parity, Global South, International Monetary Fund, Gini coefficient, World Bank, MGNREGA, Mission Ayushman, Fundamental rights 

For Mains: Inequality in India and related issues, Global Inequality,  Inclusive Growth 

Source: DTE 

Why in News? 

Oxfam International's report titled “Takers Not Makers: The Unjust Poverty and Unearned Wealth of Colonialism” highlights rising global inequality, where billionaires' wealth grows while the poor face continued hardship, with historical colonialism fueling this divide. 

 Note: Oxfam International, formed in 1995, is a confederation of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working to reduce global poverty and injustice.  

  • It operates in 79 countries, including India, focusing on emergency relief, livelihood rebuilding, and advocating for lasting change, with women's rights at the core. 

What are the Key Highlights of the Oxfam's Report? 

  • Billionaire Wealth Growth: Total billionaire wealth increased by USD 2 trillion in 2024, with 204 new billionaires created. 
    • Billionaire wealth grew three times faster in 2024 compared to 2023, with each billionaire's fortune growing by USD 2 million daily. 
  • Rising Inequality: The gap between billionaires and the rest of the world has dramatically widened as poverty remains stagnant since 1990 due to crises.  
    • The richest 1% own 45% of global wealth, while 3.6 billion people still live on less than USD 6.85 per day (Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)) and 1 in 10 women in the world lives in extreme poverty. 
    • In 1820, the wealth of the richest 10% was 18 times greater than that of the poorest 50%, and by 2020, this gap had increased to 38 times. 
    • Inequality is evident in various measures of progress, such as the average life expectancy of Africans is over 15 years shorter than that of Europeans. 
  • Colonial Legacy and Power Imbalances: Historical colonialism continues to shape global inequality, with the richest countries and individuals benefiting from colonial exploitation, and the Global South facing ongoing consequences like weak states, arbitrary borders, and conflict. 
    • USD 30 million per hour is transferred from the Global South to the Global North through financial systems. 
    • Between 1765 and 1900, the UK extracted USD 64.82 trillion from India during colonial rule, of which USD 33.8 trillion went to the wealthiest 10%. 
    • Countries in the Global North dominate global institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and United Nation Security Council,  perpetuating inequality. 
      • Today's education system reflects inequality, with 39% of global heads of state in 2017 educated in the UK, USA, or France. 
  • Inheritance: In 2023, more billionaires were created through inheritance than entrepreneurship for the first time.  
    • Nearly 60% of billionaire wealth stems from inheritance, cronyism, or monopoly power. 
  • Recommendations: As 2025 marks 70 years since the Bandung Conference (Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)), governments must promote South-South cooperation and dismantle colonial-era systems to establish a New International Fair Economic Order. 
    • Implement progressive taxation to address extreme wealth inequality.  
    • Set clear global and national goals to reduce inequality and improve the wellbeing of the global poor. 

What is Global Inequality? 

  • About: It is the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power among the 8 billion people globally. It is a key factor that exacerbates poverty and hinders well-being. 
    • In the early 1800s, global wealth disparities were smaller, but with the Industrial Revolution, income grew disproportionately in Western nations, leading to rising global inequality. 
  • Income Inequality Between Countries: Since the 1990s, income inequality between countries has decreased, largely due to rapid economic growth in countries like China and other emerging economies in Asia. 
    • Despite this progress, substantial gaps remain. For instance, the average income in North America is 16 times higher than in sub-Saharan Africa. 
  • Income Inequality Within Countries: Income inequality within countries has worsened, with 71% of the global population living in countries where inequality has increased. 
  • Drivers of Inequality: 
    • Social Factors: Gender, race, ethnicity, and geography are significant drivers of inequality. Discrimination against women, ethnic minorities, and marginalised groups continues to perpetuate inequality across the world. 
      • Women and girls continue to face income inequality, though the gender pay gap has reduced in some fields. Despite progress, they perform 12.5 billion hours of unpaid care work daily. 
    • Economic Growth: While economic growth in some countries has helped reduce global inequality, it has often been uneven, with the wealthiest benefitting most from the growth. 
      • Wealth concentration, and crony capitalism deepen inequality, as the rich pass advantages to heirs, many remain landless, and corruption fosters wealth for a select few. 
      • Regressive tax policies, and weak social safety nets worsen income inequality, leaving vulnerable populations unsupported and benefiting the wealthy. 
    • Emerging Drivers: Climate change exacerbates environmental degradation and disproportionately affects the poorest communities. 
      • Technology has the potential to be an equalizer, but those without access to digital infrastructure may face greater marginalization. 
  • Impact: Inequalities extend beyond income to impact life expectancy, education, and basic services. 
    • High inequality limits human rights, access to justice, and healthcare, contributing to a decline in global freedom in 71 countries in 2018. 
    • High levels of inequality discourage social mobility and economic development, leading to social discord, violence, and conflict. Extreme inequality is also fueling the rise of nativism and nationalism. 

What are the Trends of Inequality in India?  

Way Forward 

  • Inclusive Framework: Enforce equality provisions in the constitution and promote corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives and promote Sustainable Development Goal 10  for inclusive development policy measures, ensuring the protection of fundamental rights. 
  • Progressive Taxation: Introduce global wealth taxes targeting billionaires and large corporations. Use the funds for poverty alleviation, healthcare, education, and infrastructure development. 
    • Mandate public reporting of corporate and individual wealth to combat tax evasion and eliminate tax havens. 
  • Financial Reparations: Provide financial reparations or aids to nations and communities affected by colonial exploitation, slavery, and resource extraction. 
  • Gender Inequality: Provide economic and policy measures to value women’s unpaid labor. Improve women’s access to education, healthcare, land, and credit to reduce the gender gap in opportunities. 
  • Environmental Justice: Wealthy nations, responsible for most historical emissions, must fund climate efforts and support green investments in the Global South. 

Drishti Mains Question: 

Q. Discuss the impact of global inequality and what reforms are necessary to address this issue?

 UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims 

Q.Inclusive growth as enunciated in the Eleventh Five Year Plan does not include one of the following: (2010) 

(a) Reduction of poverty  
(b) Extension of employment opportunities  
(c) Strengthening of capital market 
(d) Reduction of gender inequality 

Ans: C 

Mains: 

Q. COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment. (2020)

Economy

World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2025

For Prelims: International Labour Organisation’s (ILO), Unemployment, Labor Market, G20 countries, Informal Work. 

For Mains: World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2025. 

    Source: TH 

    Why in News? 

    The International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) has released its "World Employment and Social Outlook (WESO): Trends 2025" report, highlighting that the global unemployment rate remained at a historic low of 5% in 2024.  

    • The report points to ongoing challenges such as slow economic recovery, geopolitical tensions, climate change, and social uncertainties affecting the labor market. 

    What are the Key Highlights of the WESO Trends 2025 Report? 

    • Steady Global Unemployment: The global unemployment rate held steady at 5%  in 2024, with youth unemployment notably high at 12.6%.  

    Global_Unemployment_Rate 

    • Youth unemployment is highest in upper-middle-income countries at 16%, and lower in low-income countries at 8%, often due to underemployment and informal work. 
    • This group faces significantly higher unemployment compared to adults. 
    • Low-income countries (LIC) face challenges in generating decent jobs, and informal employment has returned to pre-pandemic levels. 
    • Regional Disparities in Employment: In Sub-Saharan Africa, employment growth is largely in the informal sector, where workers lack stability and social protection, where around 62.6% of households live on less than USD 3.65 per day.  
      • Similarly, in other developing countries, while employment is growing, many workers remain in vulnerable, low-paying, and informal jobs. 
    • Economic Growth Trends: Economic growth for 2024 was recorded at 3.2%, slightly down from 3.3% in 2023 and 3.6% in 2022.  
      • The report forecasts a similar economic expansion in 2025, followed by a gradual deceleration in the medium term. 
    • Global Jobs Gap: The global jobs gap (i.e. number of people who desire work but are unable to find it)  stood at 402 million in 2024. 
      • This includes 186 million unemployed individuals, 137 million discouraged workers, and 79 million who are unable to seek employment due to caregiving responsibilities. 
      • While the gap has narrowed since the Covid-19 pandemic, it is expected to stabilize in the coming years. 

     Global _Jobs _Gap

    • Labour Force Participation: Labour force participation has increased in advanced economies, particularly among older workers and women and it has declined in low-income nations, contributing to slower employment growth globally. 
    • NEET Statistics: In 2024, the global NEET (Not in Education, Employment, or Training) population reached 259.1 million, with 85.8 million young men (13.1%) and 173.3 million young women (28.2%).  
      • LICs saw a sharp rise, with youth unemployment worsening. NEET rates among young men increased by 4% points above pre-pandemic levels. 
    • Debt Distress: High interest rates and economic challenges have resulted in unsustainable public debt, particularly in developing countries.  
      • Around 70 nations are at risk of debt distress, with many spending more on servicing debt than on essential services like health and education.  
      • Example: In Africa, the median public debt stands at about 65% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). 
    • Stagnant Wages Amid Shifting Labor Dynamics: Real wage growth remains weak post-pandemic due to low employment growth and a shift in labor market power toward employers.  
    • Green Transition: The renewable energy sector saw global employment rise from 13.7 million in 2022 to 16.2 million in 2023, driven by investments in solar and hydrogen energy, but benefits are unevenly distributed, with 46% in China. 
      • The digital sector offers job potential, though many countries lack the necessary infrastructure and skilled workforce to capitalize on it. 

    What are the ILO Recommendations for Achieving Social Justice and SDGs by 2030? 

    • Leverage Remittances: ILO recommends that LICs, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, should channel remittances into productive investments rather than consumption.  
      • Governments can create mechanisms to consolidate remittances into investment funds, boosting private sector growth and long-term development. 
    • Structural Transformation: Countries should address structural bottlenecks by focusing on modern services and manufacturing to create quality jobs, reducing regional disparities through investments in infrastructure, education, and skills training. 
    • Youth skill development: Provide quality education and training to youth, ensuring that they are equipped with the skills necessary for participation in modern labor markets and to take advantage of emerging industries like green energy and technology. 
    • International Collaboration: Promote global cooperation, sustainable growth, and inclusive fiscal and monetary policies that benefit all workers. 

    UN_Agencies 

    Drishti Mains Question: 

    How does the growth of informal employment impact stability and social security? Can the promotion of formalization and AI reskilling contribute to sustainable employment? 

    UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

    Q. International Labour Organization’s Conventions 138 and 182 are related to (2018)

    (a) Child Labour 
    (b) Adaptation of agricultural practices to global climate change 
    (c) Regulation of food prices and food security 
    (d) Gender parity at the workplace 

    Ans: (a) 

    Important Facts For Prelims

    38th National Games and Kalaripayattu

    Source: IE 

    Why in News? 

    The Indian Kalaripayattu Federation has accused the Indian Olympics Association (IOA) of downgrading the Kalaripayattu to the demonstration section of the event, not the competitive section.  

    • Demonstration events showcase sports for promotion and are excluded from the official medal tally. 

    What are Key Points about Kalaripayattu? 

    • About: It is one of the oldest and most scientific martial arts globally, originating in Kerala. 
      • The warrior sage Parasurama is credited with establishing Kalaripayattu, which Bodhidharma (a Buddhist monk from South India) later introduced to China at the Shaolin Temple in the 5th century AD. 
    • Philosophy: The term "Kalari" in Malayalam refers to a traditional gymnasium where "Payattu" (fight or exercise) is taught. 
      • It emphasizes mind-body coordination with techniques inspired by the attack and defense systems of eight animals i.e., elephant, lion, boar, horse, snake, rooster, cat, and fish. 
    • Types: Kalaripayattu has two types i.e., 
      • Northern: It focuses on weapons and linear movements, and  
      • Southern: It emphasizes multi-directional movements with fewer weapons. 
    • Stages of Training:  
      • Maippayattu: Body conditioning to prepare for combat. 
      • Kolthari: Training with wooden weapons like short and long sticks. 
      • Angathari: Introduction to sharp metal weapons after overcoming fear. 
      • Verumkai: Bare-hand fighting focusing on anatomy for strategic strikes. 
    • Current Context: It was included as a competitive sport in the 37th National Games, Goa but relegated to a demonstration sport in the 38th National Games, Uttarakhand. 
      • Kalaripayattu athletes won 22 medals, including 19 gold, in the 2023 National Games. 

     martial_arts

    What are Key Points About National Games 2025? 

    • About: The National Games of India is an Olympic-style multi-sport event where athletes from states and Union Territories compete for medals. 
      • The 38th edition of the National Games will take place from 28th January to 14th February 2025 in Uttarakhand. 
    • Competition Structure: The National Games will feature 32 sporting disciplines for competitive events. 
      • In addition, four demonstration sports will be included i.e., Kalaripayattu, Yogasana, Mallakhambh, and Rafting. 
    • Theme and Tagline: The mascot of the games is Mouli, inspired by Uttarakhand's state bird, the Monal, reflecting the region's natural beauty and cultural diversity. 
      • The tagline for the games is "Sankalp Se Shikhar Tak" (from resolution to zenith). 

    38th_National_Games 

    UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

    Prelims 

    Q. Consider the following pairs: (2018)

    Tradition State 
    1. Chapchar Kut festival— Mizoram
    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
    3. Thang-Ta dance — Sikkim

      

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only  

    (b) 1 and 2 only 

    (c) 3 only  

    (d) 2 and 3 only 

    Ans: (b) 

     Q. With reference to India’s culture and tradition, what is ‘Kalaripayattu’? (2014)

    (a) It is an ancient Bhakti cult of Shaivism still prevalent in some parts of South India 

    (b) It is an ancient style bronze and brasswork still found in southern part of Coromandel area 

    (c) It is an ancient form of dance-drama and a living tradition in the northern part of Malabar 

    (d) It is an ancient martial art and a living tradition in some parts of South India 

    Ans: (d)  

    Important Facts For Prelims

    RBI Liberalizes FEMA Rules for Cross-Border Transactions

    Source: BS 

    Why in News? 

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has liberalized norms under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) of 1999 to promote the use of the Indian Rupee (INR) in cross-border transactions.  

    • This initiative aims to stabilize the INR and encourage its internationalization, especially at a time when the currency is facing depreciation pressures. 

    What are the Changes Made in FEMA Regulations by RBI? 

    • Opening INR Accounts for Non-Residents: Overseas branches of Authorized Dealer banks can now open INR accounts for non-residents. This allows non-residents to settle all permissible current and capital account transactions with residents of India in Indian Rupees. 
    • Repatriable INR Accounts: The RBI has enabled non-residents to settle transactions with other non-residents using balances in their repatriable INR accounts, such as Special Non-Resident Rupee Accounts (SNRR) and Special Rupee Vostro Accounts (SRVA). 
    • Foreign Investment: Non-resident Indians (NRIs) can now use the balances in their INR accounts to make foreign investments, including Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in non-debt instruments. This strengthens the role of INR in global investment flows. 
    • Foreign Currency Accounts for Exporters: Indian exporters can now open accounts in any foreign currency overseas to settle trade transactions. This includes receiving export proceeds and using those funds to pay for imports. 

    NRI Accounts 

    • NRE Account:  An NRE (Non-Resident External) Account can be opened by NRIs with earnings from their country of residence, but the funds are held in Indian rupee denominations. 
      • Income from the NRE account is tax-free, with both principal and interest exempt from taxation. 
    • NRO Account: An NRO (Non-Resident Ordinary) Account opened by NRIs to manage income earned in India (e.g., rental income, business income, dividends, etc.), , and is held in INR denominations.  Interest earned on an NRO account is taxable. 
    • FCNR (B) Account: An FCNR (Foreign Currency Non-Residential) Account allows NRIs or Persons of Indian Origin (POIs) to deposit earnings in their country of residence in any of the prescribed foreign currencies by RBI. 
      • Income from an FCNR account is tax-free, including both principal and interest.  

    Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999 

    • About: The FEMA, enacted in 1999, replaced the older Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1973.  
      • Its primary aim is to promote external trade and payments while ensuring the orderly development of India's foreign exchange market, in line with the country’s post-liberalization economic changes. 
      • FEMA categorizes foreign exchange transactions into Current Account Transactions and Capital Account Transactions. 
    • Capital Account Transaction: It refers to transactions that alter the assets or liabilities outside India of residents in India or vice versa.  
      • Key transactions under this category include the transfer or issuance of foreign securities, borrowing or lending in foreign exchange or rupees between residents and non-residents, export/import of currency notes, and acquisition or transfer of immovable property in India or abroad. 
    • Current Account Transaction: Includes transactions that are not related to capital account transactions. It encompasses payments for foreign trade, services, and income from investments, as well as transfers such as remittances and foreign aid. 
    • Key Objectives and Provisions:  
      • Civil Offences: Violations under FEMA are treated as civil offences, unlike FERA, which was criminal in nature. 
      • RBI’s Role: The RBI has the authority to issue rules and oversee the implementation of FEMA. 

    Internationalization of Rupee 

    • About: It involves increasing its use in cross-border transactions, starting with trade, followed by current and capital account transactions. 
      • In July 2022, India introduced the Special Rupee Vostro Account (SRVA) to boost INR use in trade.   
      • Additionally, the RBI signed Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) with the central banks of the UAE, Indonesia, and Maldives to encourage cross-border transactions in local currencies.  
        • In December 2023, the Foreign Exchange Management Regulations were revised to allow cross-border transactions in all foreign currencies, including INR. 

    internationalisation_of_rupee

     UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

    Prelims: 

    Q1. Convertibility of rupee implies (2015) 

    (a) being able to convert rupee notes into gold 
    (b) allowing the value of rupee to be fixed by market forces 
    (c) freely permitting the conversion of rupee to other currencies and vice versa 
    (d) developing an international market for currencies in India 

    Ans: (c) 

    Q2. With reference to Balance of Payments, which of the following constitutes/ constitute the Current Account? (2014) 

    1. Balance of trade 
    2. Foreign assets 
    3. Balance of invisibles 
    4. Special Drawing Rights 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    a. only
    b. 2 and 3
    c. 1 and 3 
    d. 1, 2 and 4 

    Ans: (c)  

    Rapid Fire

    Nigeria as 9th BRICS Partner Country

    Source: TH 

    Brazil, holding the BRICS presidency in 2025, announced Nigeria's admission as a "partner country" of the BRICS bloc. 

    • Nigeria becomes the 9th BRICS partner country, joining Belarus, Bolivia, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Thailand, Uganda, and Uzbekistan. 
      • In BRICS, a "partner country" refers to nations or organizations invited to attend summits ministerial meetings, or participate in other joint ventures, but without membership status or formal decision-making power. 
    • Nigeria has the world's 6th largest population and Africa's largest, in addition to being the 4th largest economy in Africa. 
      • Nigeria is located on the Western coast of Africa, often called the "Giant of Africa." 
    • About BRICS: BRICS was formed by Brazil, Russia, India and China in 2009, with South Africa added in 2010 as a counterweight to G7 countries. 
      • In 2023, the BRICS added Iran, Egypt, Ethiopia and the UAE, while Saudi Arabia has been invited to join. 
      • Indonesia has officially joined the BRICS group as the 10th member, effective from January 2025. 
      • Turkey, Azerbaijan and Malaysia have formally applied to become BRICS members. 

     Nigeria

    Read More: Expansion of BRICS 

    Rapid Fire

    Eruption of Mount Ibu

    Source: TH 

    Indonesia’s Mount Ibu erupted 1,079 times in January 2025, with significant ash columns rising between 0.3 km to 4 km. 

     Volcano

    Read More: Volcanism 

    Rapid Fire

    Mission SCOT

    Source: PIB 

    The Prime Minister of India lauded Indian space startup Digantara for the success of Mission SCOT (Space Camera for Object Tracking). 

     Read more: NETRA Project & Space Junk 

    Rapid Fire

    India Wins Inaugural Kho Kho World Cup 2025

    Source: TH 

    India emerged as the champions of the inaugural Kho Kho World Cup 2025, clinching both the men’s and women’s Kho Kho World champions titles by defeating Nepal in the finals. 

    • Kho Kho World Cup 2025: The tournament was backed by the Indian Olympic Association (IOA), it included group stages and knockouts for both divisions (men’s and women’s). 
    • Kho Kho’s Historical Significance:  It is one of India's oldest traditional tag games, believed to have evolved from the Chakravyuha, a war formation in the Mahabharata, resembling a defensive tactic similar to Kho Kho's ring play. 
      • Experts believe that Kho Kho originated in Maharashtra, and was initially played on chariots. The modern foot version emerged in 1914 during World War I, with Pune’s Deccan Gymkhana Club formalizing its rules and structure. 
      • A Kho Kho team consists of 9 active players, with 3 substitutes available. Players alternate between chasing, defending, and tagging opponents. 
      • Kho Kho was demonstrated at the Berlin 1936 Olympics, alongside other indigenous Indian sports like kabaddi and mallakhamb. 
    • Growing Popularity: Kho Kho’s global reach has grown from 6 countries in 2020 to 55 in 2025. The International Kho Kho Federation (IKKF) aims to expand to 90 countries, targeting Olympic inclusion by 2036. 

     Read more: India Bids to Host the 2036 Olympics 

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