Climate Footprint of Space Exploration

Source: TH

Why in News?

Space exploration is expanding rapidly, but its environmental impact  from rocket emissions to satellite debris is largely ignored by global sustainability frameworks like the Paris Agreement. Urgent action is needed to address these growing concerns. 

How are Space Activities Affecting the Environment? 

• Rocket Emissions: Rocket launches emit carbon dioxide (CO₂), black carbon, and water vapor. Black carbon absorbs sunlight 500 times more effectively than CO₂, exacerbating global warming.  
  • Additionally, chlorine-based rocket propellants deplete the ozone layer, increasing ultraviolet (UV) exposure and disrupting atmospheric circulation. 
• Space Debris: As of September 2024, 19,590 satellites have been launched, with 13,230 still in orbit, of which 10,200 are operational.  
  • The total mass of space objects exceeds 13,000 tonnes, contributing to pollution by Space Debris due to overcrowding in low Earth orbit (LEO).  
    • Non-functional satellites and debris from collisions add to the growing problem of space junk and making space increasingly inaccessible. 
  • This debris can disrupt radio waves and sensor accuracy, affecting critical systems for disaster tracking, climate monitoring, and communication. 
• Satellite Manufacturing: The production of satellites involves energy-intensive processes that contribute significantly to their carbon footprint, particularly through the use of metals and composites.  
  • Satellite propulsion systems also release additional emissions during orbital adjustments. Furthermore, satellites burn up during re-entry, releasing metallic "satellite ash" that could alter atmospheric dynamics and harm the climate. 
• Emerging Threats: Space mining, although not yet operational, poses a potential threat to both Earth and space environments.  
  • Increased industrial activity in orbit could intensify environmental impacts, compounding the challenges posed by current space operations. 

What are the Barriers to Sustainable Space Exploration? 

• Lack of Regulations: Space activities are not covered by agreements like the Paris Accord, leaving emissions and debris largely unregulated.  
  • Without clear guidelines, the rapid increase in satellites and debris led to overcrowded orbits, making future missions more costly and riskier.  
  • While the Outer Space Treaty, 1967 emphasizes responsible use, it lacks binding provisions for environmental sustainability. 
  • In 2019, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) adopted 21 voluntary guidelines for the long-term sustainability of space activities.  
    • However, the lack of binding regulations and conflicting national and commercial priorities hinder the implementation of these guidelines, making it challenging to achieve a unified approach to space sustainability. 
• Commercial Exploitation of Space: It involves generating revenue through space-related technologies and services, such as space resource recovery from asteroids, developing commercial space stations, and offering space tourism, driven by profit-focused companies, may undermine sustainability efforts. 
• High Costs: Developing and implementing sustainable technologies for space exploration is expensive.  
  • This includes costs related to debris mitigation, sustainable fuel alternatives, and long-term missions, all of which require significant investment. 
  • Achieving sustainability in space requires advanced technologies for debris removal, efficient propulsion systems, and life support systems for long-duration missions.  
    • Many of these technologies are still in development and demand substantial investment. 
• Data-Sharing Issues: Security and commercial interests often hinder real-time satellite and debris tracking, which is essential for coordinated space traffic management.  

Where Does India Stand on Space Sustainability? 

• Private Sector Engagement: The formal establishment of the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (In-SPACe) is expected to boost the role of private companies. 
  • Startups like Agnikul, Skyroot, and Dhruva Space are developing sustainable satellite launch vehicles and technologies. 
  • Manastu Space Technologies has delivered the iBooster Green Propulsion System to the Defence Research and Development Organisation.  
    • The system uses a hydrogen peroxide-based fuel for safer, cost-effective satellite operations like orbit raising and deorbiting. 
• Space Debris Management: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)  Network for Space Objects Tracking and Analysis (NETRA) project aims to track space debris, providing critical data to protect space assets and help manage risks.  
  • This initiative helps manage risks and prevent Kessler Syndrome, where collisions create more debris. 
  • India has also collaborated with the US on space object monitoring under a pact signed in 2022. 
• In-Orbit Servicing: ISRO is developing the SPADEX (Space Docking Experiment) to dock satellites for refueling and other services, which will enhance satellite longevity and mission flexibility. 

Way Forward

• Technological Innovations:  Reusable rockets, like those developed by Elon Musk's SpaceX, reduce waste and costs. Green hydrogen and biofuels can lower emissions in launches.  
  • Electric propulsion is efficient for low-thrust missions but not suitable for heavy-lift operations.  
  • Nuclear propulsion presents a potential option, but it carries the risk of nuclear radiation pollution in the event of an accident within Earth's atmosphere. 
• Mitigating Orbital Debris: Biodegradable satellites such as Japan's LignoSat, where components could disintegrate on re-entry, reducing space debris accumulation. 
  • Investment in Autonomous Debris Removal (ADR) technologies such as robotic arms and lasers is essential for cleaning up existing debris.  
  • Deorbiting satellites from LEO to Geostationary Orbit (GEO) or higher orbits can reduce the risk of re-entry into Earth's atmosphere and minimize debris accumulation in LEO. 
• Global Traffic Management: A global system to monitor satellite movements in real-time would reduce collision risks and ensure safer orbital use. 
  • Overcoming data-sharing resistance and building trust with security protocols are key for effective space traffic management. 
• Policy and Governance:  Aligning sustainability goals with the Outer Space Treaty and introducing binding agreements under COPUOS is essential for enforcing environmental responsibility in space. 
  • Governments can enforce emission caps, debris mitigation, and offer incentives for green technologies through subsidies and penalties to promote a sustainable space industry. 
• Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between governments and private entities is key to funding sustainable technologies. Shared accountability frameworks ensure mutual responsibility for sustainability in space. 

Drishti Mains Question:  Examine the environmental impact of space exploration. Suggest sustainability measures.

International Mountain Day 2024

Source: PIB 

Why in News?  

Recently, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change observed International Mountain Day 2024 (11th December) to highlight the need to protect the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). 

What is International Mountain Day? 

• History: International Mountain Day, observed on 11th December, was established by the United Nations in 2003 to raise awareness about sustainable development in mountains and their vital importance to life.  
  • The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) plays a key role in coordinating this observance. 
• Theme 2024: Mountain solutions for a sustainable future – innovation, adaptation and youth.  
• Importance of Mountains: Mountains cover about one-fifth of the Earth's surface and are home to 15% of the world’s population and host half of the world’s biodiversity hotspots. 
  • They provide essential freshwater for half of humanity acting as "water towers", supporting agriculture, clean energy, and health sectors. 
  • Mountains are ecological treasures that need protection. Without them, many countries would face dry, barren land. Their preservation is key to sustainable development. 

What are the Key Facts About Indian Himalayan Region (IHR)? 

• Geographical Extent: The IHR stretches across 13 Indian states/Union Territories, including Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and parts of West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. 
  • It spans a distance of approximately 2,500 km from west to east. 
• Tectonic Activity: The IHR is tectonically active due to the ongoing collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. 
  • This has led to the formation of the Himalayan mountains and continues to shape the region’s geological features. 
• Geological Diversity: The region is rich in geological features, with varying rock formations, fault lines, and plateaus. There are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks found in different sections of the Himalayas. 
• Significance: The IHR covers about 16.2% of the country's total geographical area. 
  • The region is a biodiversity hotspot, home to numerous plant and animal species, some of which are endemic or endangered. 
  • The region is the source of major river systems, including the Ganga, Yamuna, Indus, and Brahmaputra. 
  • The region features various ecosystems, including temperate forests, alpine meadows, glaciers, and snow-capped peaks. 
    • It is home to iconic wildlife such as the snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, red panda, and the one-horned rhinoceros. 
  • The IHR plays a critical role in regulating the climate of the Indian subcontinent by acting as a barrier to cold, dry Arctic winds and influencing the monsoon patterns. 
    • The region also helps in carbon sequestration through its forests, contributing to the global fight against climate change. 
  • The IHR acts as a natural border between India and several neighboring countries like China, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan. 
• Concerns: 
  • Unsustainable Development: Activities like deforestation, Hydropower Projects in Himalayas, and infrastructure projects like Char Dham Project disrupt ecosystems and contribute to disasters. 
  • Climate Change Impact: Glacial melting and expanding lakes increase flood risks, while temperature rise affects water resources. 
    • Events like floods in Himachal Pradesh, and glacial lake outbursts in Sikkim highlight the consequences. 
  • Cultural Erosion: The IHR is home to indigenous communities with valuable traditional knowledge for sustainable resource management, but modernisation threatens to erode these cultural practices. 
  • Rising Tourism: Tourism generates 8 million tonnes of waste annually, with projections indicating 240 million tourists by 2025.  
    • The region's fragile ecology is under threat, as waste often ends up polluting land, water, and air due to the lack of space for disposal in mountain towns.

 What Can be Done to Protect Indian Himalayan Region? 

• Sustainable Tourism: Promote eco-tourism, enforce carrying capacity limits, and raise awareness to generate income for locals while minimizing environmental impact. 
• Glacial Water Capture: Implement methods to capture and store glacial meltwater for use during dry periods to support agriculture and ecosystems.  
• Disaster Preparedness: Develop disaster management plans for the region, focusing on landslides, avalanches, and glacial lake outburst floods, with early warning systems and community training. 
• Greywater Recycling: Set up systems to recycle household greywater for agricultural use, enhancing water security and crop growth. 
• Bio-Cultural Conservation Zones: Designate areas to preserve both natural biodiversity and indigenous cultural practices. 
• Integrated Development: Establish a “Himalayan Authority” for coordinated development and monitoring of Sustainable Development Goals across the region. 

How are Mountains Formed? 

• Formation: Mountains are formed by movement within the Earth's crust, which consists of tectonic plates floating on molten magma.  
  • These plates shift and collide over time, creating pressure that causes the Earth's surface to buckle or protrude, forming mountains. 
• Key Characteristics: 
  • Elevation: Mountains are generally higher than the surrounding land, with elevation often exceeding 600 meters. 
  • Steep Slopes: Mountains typically have steep slopes, though some can be more gradual. 
  • Summit/Peak: The top of a mountain is called the summit, which is often the highest point. 
  • Mountain Range: A series or group of mountains connected by high ground forms a mountain range. 

What are the Types of Mountain? 

• Based on Mode of Origin: 
  • Volcanic Mountains: Formed by the eruption of magma from the Earth's crust, creating peaks like those in Hawaii and Fiji. 
  • Fold Mountains: Created by the collision and folding of tectonic plates, such as the Himalayas and the Andes. 
  • Block Mountains: Formed by faulting and the movement of large blocks of the Earth's crust, leading to raised or dropped sections, like the Sierra Nevada. 
  • Dome Mountains: Created by magma pushing the Earth's crust upward, forming a dome-like structure, often exposed after erosion like Black Hills (US). 
  • Plateau Mountains: These mountains resemble dome mountains but are formed by colliding tectonic plates pushing up the land, shaped by weathering and erosion. 
• Based on Period of Origin: 
  • Precambrian Mountains: Precambrian mountains are ancient ranges formed during the Precambrian era (4.6 billion to 541 million years ago).   
    • They have experienced extensive erosion and metamorphism over billions of years, leaving behind residual formations (e.g., Aravallis in India). 
  • Caledonian Mountains: Formed around 430 million years ago (e.g., Appalachians). 
  • Hercynian Mountains: These mountains originated from the Carboniferous to Permian Period (approximately 340 million years and 225 million years) (e.g., Ural Mountains). 
  • Alpine Mountains: The youngest mountain systems formed during the Tertiary period(66 million years ago) (e.g., Himalayas, Alps). 

What are the Key Facts About Mountain Ranges in India? 

• The Himalayas: The most famous and highest mountain range in India, stretching over 2,900 kilometers along the border between India and Tibet.  
  • The Himalayas are divided into three main ranges, Himadri (Great Himalayas or Inner Himalayas), Himachal (Lesser Himalayas), Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas). 
  • Mount Everest (Sagarmatha/Chomolungma) is the highest peak in the Himalayas and the world, standing at an elevation of 8,848.86 meters above sea level. Other notable peaks in the range include K2, Kanchenjunga, and Makalu. 
• Western Ghats: The Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills) runs parallel to the western coast of India and has an average elevation of about 1,200 meters.  
  • The highest peak is Anamudi. The Western Ghats are known for their rich biodiversity and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
  • The Western Ghats are block mountains formed by the downwarping of land into the Arabian Sea. 
• Eastern Ghats: The  Eastern Ghats runs parallel to the eastern coast of India. The highest peak is Arma Konda at 1,680 meters. 
• Aravalli Range: One of the oldest mountain ranges in the world, stretching for about 800 kilometers across north - western India,. The highest peak is Guru Shikhar at 1,722 meters 
• Vindhya Range: The Vindhya range runs across central India and is known for its historical significance. The highest point is Sadbhawna Shikhar at 752 meters. 
  • The Vindhya Range is located to the south of the Malwa Plateau and runs in an east-west direction, parallel to the Narmada Valley. 
• Satpura Range: Located in central India, this range has peaks like Dhupgarh, which is the highest at 1,350 meters. 

Drishti Mains Question:  Explain the process of mountain formation with specific reference to fold mountains and their significance for the Indian subcontinent.

Changing Trends in Fertilizer Use

Source: BS 

Why in News?

Recently, the sales of fertilisers Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), a key fertiliser for rabi crops, have declined significantly by 25.4% during April to October FY25, while that of NPKS (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Sulphur) fertilizers surged by 23.5% in the same period.  

• This shift is largely driven by reduced imports and higher costs of DAP, encouraging farmers to opt for alternatives like NPKS, which provide more balanced soil nutrition. 

What are Factors Influencing the Shift in Fertilizer Usage Preferences? 

• Decline in DAP Usage: The shift is largely driven by rising costs and supply chain issues associated with DAP, prompting farmers to seek alternatives. 
  • Global challenges like the Russia–Ukraine war and Belarus sanctions disrupted potash markets leading to rising Muriate of Potash(MOP) prices in FY23. These countries are among major producers of potash in the world. 
  • DAP sales declined by 30% to 2.78 million tonnes due to the Persian Gulf crisis which has led to prolonged shipping delays, extending transit times from the usual 20-25 days to nearly 45 days. 
    • This led to prices for DAP rising to approximately USD 632 per tonne in September 2024. 
• Shift in Fertilizer Preferences: Farmers are increasingly turning to NPKS fertilizers, which are considered more beneficial than DAP due to their balanced nutrient composition. The 20:20:0:13 NPKS grade, offering balanced quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, and sulphur has seen significant sales growth.

What are the Benefits of Using NPKS Fertilizer? 

• Balanced Nutrient Supply: NPKS fertilizers provide a comprehensive supply of essential nutrients- Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), and Sulfur (S)- which are critical for plant growth, enhancing the overall health and productivity of crops. 
  • This balance ensures that plants receive adequate nutrients for various growth stages, from vegetative to reproductive phases. 
• Improved Soil Health and Sustainable Agriculture: : Sulfur, an essential nutrient often deficient in soils, improves root development, enzyme activation, and resistance to diseases.  
  • By including sulfur, NPKS fertilizers enhance soil health and fertility, promoting more efficient nutrient uptake by plants. 
• Enhanced Crop Yield: It helps in boosting crop yield by improving photosynthesis, strengthening plant immunity, and promoting better flowering, fruiting, and seed formation. This leads to higher productivity, which is particularly beneficial for food security. 
• Optimal Plant Growth: It is designed to support overall plant growth, improving root and stem development, increasing chlorophyll production, and enhancing drought resistance, which helps crops thrive in varying environmental conditions. 

What are the Challenges with Fertilizer Usage in India? 

• Imbalance in Fertilizer Use: India’s actual NPK ratio (9.8:3.7:1 in Kharif 2024) deviates significantly from the recommended 4:2:1 ratio, leading to nutrient deficiencies and soil degradation. 
  • This imbalance, with excessive nitrogen and insufficient phosphorus and potassium, leads to nutrient deficiencies, soil degradation, and reduced crop yields. 
• Excessive Use of Nitrogenous Fertilizers: India is the second-largest consumer of urea in the world after China, but its overuse causes soil degradation, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Subsidies distort the fertilizer market and promote inefficiency. 
• Low Production and High Consumption: Despite a slight increase in production in fertilizers from 385.39 LMT in 2014-15 to 503.35 LMT in 2023-24, domestic fertilizer production remains inadequate to fully meet the country's demand. 
  • In 2020-21, the total consumption of fertilizers was about 629.83 LMT.  
• Dependence on Imports: India imports around 20% of its urea, 50-60% of diammonium phosphate (DAP), and 100% of muriate of potash (MOP) fertilisers from nations such as China, Russia, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman, Iran, and Egypt. 
  • This makes India highly dependent on global supply chains for key fertilizer nutrients and exposed to global price fluctuations and supply volatility. 

Way Forward 

• Balanced Fertilizer Usage: Promoting balanced fertilizer usage, with an emphasis on NPKS (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur), can help address the imbalance in the NPK ratio, enhance soil health, and decrease dependency on nitrogen-dominant fertilizers such as urea. 
• Promotion of Organic and Bio-fertilizers: Incentivizing organic farming and bio-fertilizers can reduce chemical fertilizer dependence, enhance soil fertility, and minimize the environmental impact of synthetic fertilizers. 
• Efficient Fertilizer Distribution: Streamlining fertilizer subsidies and distribution through a targeted approach will reduce inefficiencies and promote balanced, cost-effective fertilizer use. 
• Domestic Production Capacity Expansion: Expanding domestic production of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers, with investments in technology and infrastructure, will reduce India's dependence on imports and strengthen supply chain resilience 
• Sustainable Fertilizer Policies: The government should design policies that encourage the judicious use of fertilizers, taking into account regional soil types and crop-specific nutrient needs.  

Drishti Mains Question: Discuss the challenges of fertilizer usage in India and suggest measures to promote balanced usage and enhance domestic production.

SC Panel Report on Agriculture Distress

Source: DTE

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court (SC)-appointed committee has submitted its interim report on agrarian distress in India. The report has highlighted the severe state of crisis in India's agriculture.

What are the Key Findings of the SC Committee Report on the State of Agricultural Farmers?

• Income Crisis: The report finds that farmers earn a mere Rs 27 per day from agricultural activities, highlighting the stark poverty within the sector. 
  • The average monthly income of agricultural households is Rs 10,218, which is far below the basic living standards required for a decent life.
• Escalating Debt: Farmers in Punjab and Haryana are burdened with mounting debts, with institutional loans reaching Rs 73,673 crore and Rs 76,630 crore, respectively, in 2022-23.
  • Non-institutional debt adds to the burden, accounting for 21.3% in Punjab and 32% in Haryana, causing widespread financial distress and pushing many farmers to despair.
• Farmer Suicides: Since 1995, over 4 lakh farmers and farm workers in India have committed suicide, according to the National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB). 
  • A house-to-house survey conducted by three public sector universities in Punjab recorded 16,606 suicides between 2000 and 2015, primarily among small and marginal farmers and landless workers, with high indebtedness being the major cause.
• Stagnation in Agricultural Growth: Punjab and Haryana have experienced stagnation in agricultural growth, with annual growth rates of 2% and 3.38%, respectively, from 2014-15 to 2022-23, significantly below the national average. 
  • This stagnation has contributed to low income levels and declining living standards for farmers.
• Disproportionate Employment: The report highlights that 46% of India's workforce is employed in agriculture, yet it contributes only 15% to the national income.
  • Many agricultural workers are underpaid or face disguised unemployment, worsening rural poverty.
• Impact of Climate Change: Depleting water tables, droughts, erratic rainfall, and extreme weather conditions are aggravating the crisis, further threatening food security and agricultural productivity.

What are the Implications of the Findings of Report?

• Impact on National Economy: The declining state of agriculture, along with high suicide rates and increasing debt, poses a significant threat to the nation’s economy. 
  • Neglecting agriculture could lead to long-term economic instability and increase rural-urban migration.
• Sustainability and Food Security: If the current trajectory continues, India’s agricultural sector could face a crisis in terms of food security. 
  • With decreasing agricultural productivity, climate change challenges, and a lack of reform, India may struggle to meet the growing demands for food, further exacerbating poverty and hunger in rural areas.
• Social Stability: The persistent farmer suicides and growing despair within the farming community could also lead to social unrest.

What are Major Challenges Faced by the Agricultural Sector in India?

• Limited Access to Credit and Finance: As per India's Agriculture Census 2015-16, around 86% of Indian farmers are small and marginal, and many face significant challenges in accessing institutional credit. 
  • This limits their ability to invest in modern farming inputs like machinery, seeds, and fertilizers, affecting productivity.
• Fragmented Landholdings: The average landholding in India is around 1.08 hectares, which is insufficient for large-scale, efficient farming. 
  • This makes it difficult for farmers to adopt modern agricultural techniques and technologies. The lack of economies of scale results in lower agricultural output and productivity, contributing to financial instability.
• Outdated Farming Practices:  A large number of Indian farmers still depend on traditional farming techniques that are inefficient and unsustainable. 
  • The lack of access to modern technology and resistance to change further obstruct improvements in farming productivity and sustainability.
• Water Scarcity and Irrigation: India’s agriculture relies heavily on monsoon rainfall, with 60% of cropped area being rainfed, making it vulnerable to droughts and erratic rainfall. 
  • According to NITI Aayog's data for 2022-23, only 52% of India's gross sown area (73 million hectares) is irrigated, exacerbating water scarcity.
• Soil Degradation and Erosion: The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that nearly 30% of India’s agricultural land is affected by soil degradation, primarily due to excessive chemical fertilizer use, poor irrigation practices, and deforestation. 
  • This leads to reduced soil fertility, lower productivity, and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases.
• Inadequate Agricultural Infrastructure: India faces 15-20% post-harvest losses due to insufficient storage, cold chains, and rural road infrastructure according to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)). 
  • This increases production costs and limits farmers' access to markets, hindering fair price realization.

What Can be Done to Reduce Farmer Distress in India?

• Loan Waivers: Debt relief for farmers, including a loan waiver, as an immediate measure to alleviate their financial distress. 
  • This would help in reducing the crushing burden of debt, which is one of the primary reasons behind farmer suicides.
• Legal Recognition of MSP: The Supreme Court-appointed panel has also recommended granting legal recognition to the Minimum Support Price (MSP) to protect farmers from market price fluctuations. 
  • This would guarantee farmers a fixed price for their produce, ensuring income stability and reducing uncertainty in the agricultural sector.
• Promotion of Organic Farming and Crop Diversification: There is a need to promote organic farming and crop diversification to reduce dependency on a few staple crops.
  • This would ensure sustainability  and would also reduce the environmental impact of conventional farming practices.
• Agricultural Marketing Reforms: To improve the efficiency of agricultural markets, reforms in the agricultural marketing system are needed which could include measures such as establishing more farmer-friendly markets, reducing intermediaries, and improving infrastructure for better price realisation for farmers.
• Employment Generation in Rural Areas: To address low agricultural income, policies must focus on creating employment opportunities in rural areas, promoting diversification and sustainable development.
  • This could include skill development programs, rural industrialization, and promoting agro-based industries.
• Climate Resilience Measures: There is a need for urgent measures to address the impact of climate change on agriculture, including better water management practices, promoting drought-resistant crops, and investing in climate-resilient infrastructure.

SC Prioritising SLPs Disposal

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

The Supreme Court (SC) has started prioritising hearing special leave petitions (SLPs) cases with the aim to reduce the high burden of cases filed each year, alongside a substantial backlog.  

• As of December 2024, over 82,000 cases are pending in the SC, which has prompted the Chief Justice of India (CJI), to implement such strategies. 

What is a Special Leave Petition (SLP)? 

• About: 
  • A SLP is a discretionary appeal mechanism (Article 136 of the Constitution of India) allowing the SC to hear appeals against judgments, decrees, or orders of any court or tribunal. 
    • It is not applicable for Armed Forces Tribunals. 
• Origin: 
  • The concept of "special leave" is derived from the Government of India Act, 1935, which had recognized the prerogative to grant special leave for appeals. 
• Key Features: 
  • This is an extraordinary jurisdiction of the SC, which enables it to address cases where no direct right of appeal exists. 
  • It is granted solely at the discretion of the SC, which may deny leave without providing reasons. 
    • It is applicable to both civil and criminal matters. 
  • When the SC grants an SLP, it transitions into a formal appeal, allowing detailed examination of the case and enabling both parties to present their arguments before a final verdict is delivered. 
    • It is typically invoked in cases involving substantial questions of law or a miscarriage of justice. 
• Eligibility:  
  • Any aggrieved party can file an SLP against a judgment or order of a High Court or tribunal, especially where: 
    • A certificate of fitness for appeal to the SC has been denied. 
    • Substantial questions of law or injustice are involved. 
• Time Limit to File a SLP: 
  • An SLP can be filed within 90 days from the date of a High Court's judgment. 
  • If the High Court refuses to grant a certificate of fitness for appeal to the SC, the SLP must be filed within 60 days from the date of such refusal. 
• Procedure for Filing a SLP:

What are the Supreme Court Cases Related SLPs? 

• In Laxmi & Co. v. Anand R. Deshpande (1972), the SC held that during appeals under Article 136, the Court may consider subsequent developments to expedite proceedings, safeguard the rights of parties, and uphold the interests of justice. 
• In Kerala State v. Kunhayammed (2000) SC ruled that declining to grant an SLP does not invoke its appellate jurisdiction.  
  • This discretion ensures that the SC intervenes only in cases warranting judicial scrutiny. 
• In Pritam Singh v. The State (1950), it was emphasized that the SC should exercise its powers under Article 136 sparingly, interfering with High Court decisions only in exceptional cases.  
  • Once an appeal is admitted, the appellant may challenge any erroneous legal findings by the High Court. 
• In N. Suriyakala v. A. Mohandoss & Ors. (2007) SC clarified that Article 136 does not establish an ordinary appellate forum but grants broad discretionary powers to the Supreme Court to intervene for ensuring justice, rather than providing a right of appeal to litigants. 
  • Filing SLPs indiscriminately goes against the purpose of Article 136.

India-Australia CECA

Source: PIB 

Why in News? 

India and Australia have “outlined a path forward for the early conclusion” of the Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) between both nations.   

• During a three-day stocktake meeting between the two nations, discussions covered several critical areas of the CECA, including trade in goods, services, mobility, agri-tech cooperation, and more.  

What is the Australia-India Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA)? 

• About: 
  • The CECA is a free trade agreement (FTA) aimed to eliminate tariffs on goods traded and liberalise services sectors to facilitate business opportunities and cooperation. 
  • India-Australia CECA aims to address five key areas: Goods, services, digital trade, government procurement, and Rules of Origin/Product Specific Rules.  
    • In the recent negotiations, both sides have shown interest in the inclusion of new areas in the comprehensive trade deals, such as competition policy, MSMEs, gender, innovation, agri-tech, critical minerals, and sports. 
• Background: 
  • Negotiations for CECA began in May 2011, were suspended in 2016, and re-launched in September 2021.  
  • The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA), a foundational agreement, was signed and came into force in 2022. It is a limited trade agreement and is less comprehensive than CECA.  
• Current Trade Statistics: 
  • Trade between Australia and India has grown significantly, with India being Australia's fifth-largest trading partner.  
  • During 2023-24, in value terms, India's imports from Australia were $16.2 billion, while exports were almost $8 billion, (compared to $19 billion in imports and nearly $7 billion in exports in the previous fiscal).  
• Other Similar Initiatives between India and Australia: 
  • Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) 
  • Trilateral Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI) (India, Australia and Japan) 
• India’s CECA with Other Countries: 
  • India-Singapore CECA 
  • India-Malaysia CECA 
  • India-Thailand CECA 
  • India -New Zealand CECA

Read More: 2^nd India-Australia Annual Summit  

Gene Therapy Treatment for Haemophilia

Source: TH 

Indian scientists have developed a novel gene therapy for haemophilia A, offering a one-time treatment to replace frequent clotting factor injections.  

• In a trial at Christian Medical College, Vellore, five patients have been free of bleeding episodes for over a year.  
• Haemophilia A is a genetic disorder caused by insufficient Factor VIII, preventing proper blood clotting. India, with 40,000 to 100,000 affected patients, has the second-largest haemophilia population globally. 
  • Haemophilia A is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern. Males with a defective X chromosome have hemophilia, while females need two defective X chromosomes to be affected.  
  • Current treatments are lifelong and expensive, costing up to Rs 2.54 crore over ten years, making gene therapy a cost-effective alternative. 
• Gene therapy replaces defective genes in a patient’s cells with healthy ones. 
• Roctavian, the only USFood and Drug Administration approved gene therapy, uses an adenovirus vector to deliver a gene for Factor VIII production in the liver but is not approved for children. 
• The Vellore trial used a lentivirus vector, considered safer and potentially suitable for children, offering new possibilities for gene therapy in resource-constrained settings. 

Read more: World Haemophilia Day 

Caspian Sea

Source: TH 

Kazakhstan's state-owned energy company, KazMunayGas, has successfully decontaminated significant oil waste along the Caspian Sea’s shores, which has been hit by pollution and the effects of global warming.

• Location: Lies between Asia and Europe, east of the Caucasus Mountains and west of the Central Asian steppe.  
  • It is bordered by Russia (northwest), Azerbaijan (west), Iran (south), Turkmenistan (southeast) and Kazakhstan (northeast). 
• Formation and Characteristics: The Caspian Sea was once part of a prehistoric sea known as the Paratethys. Tectonic forces uplifting the land and a drop in sea level left the Caspian landlocked more than 5 million years ago. 
  • It is technically a lake, as it is landlocked without a direct outlet to the ocean. It is the  world’s Largest Inland Water Body. 
• Rivers: Three major rivers Volga, Ural, and Terek empty into the Caspian. 
• Rich in Resources: Contains significant oil and natural gas reserves in offshore and onshore fields. Caspian Sea Known for producing most of the world’s caviar (eggs of various large fish).

Read more: Caspian Sea

Campaign Against Tuberculosis

Source: PIB 

Recently, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has launched a 100-day intensified nationwide campaign to find and treat missing tuberculosis (TB) cases, especially in high-risk groups, and reduce TB deaths significantly. It will be implemented in 347 districts across the country.  

• About Campaign: The 100-Day Campaign underscores India’s commitment to achieving the goal of end-TB under the National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP). 
  • It aligns with India’s broader vision to eradicate TB well before the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals deadline. 
  • National guidelines for the implementation of the new drug-resistant TB regimen – BPaLM were launched to standardize and streamline the administration of this advanced treatment.  
    • BPaLM regimen is a novel treatment for Multi-Drug-Resistant TB under the NTEP, consisting of four-drug combination – Bedaquiline, Pretomanid, Linezolid and Moxifloxacin.   
  • “Ni-kshay Vahaan” – mobile vans to detect and treat patients all over the country were also launched. 
• Tuberculosis: TB is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, that mainly affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when infected people cough, sneeze or spit.  
  • As per India TB Report 2024, mortality rate due to Tuberculosis (TB) had declined from 28 per lakh population in 2015 to 23 per lakh population in 2022. 
• India’s Initiatives against TB: 
  • National Strategic Plan (NSP) for Tuberculosis Elimination (2017-2025) 
  • TB Harega Desh Jeetega Campaign 
  • Ni-kshay Poshan Yojana  
  • Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan 

 Read More: Tuberculosis, Global Tuberculosis Report 2024, India TB Report 2024 

Thalassemia

Source: HT 

A critical shortage of Desferal (deferoxamine) in Delhi government hospitals has put thalassemia patients at risk of severe complications from iron overload, as the drug is essential for those unable to tolerate oral chelators. 

• Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that reduces the body’s ability to produce normal hemoglobin, leading to fewer healthy red blood cells and anemia. 
• Symptoms range from growth issues, delayed puberty, and bone abnormalities in mild cases to poor appetite, jaundice, dark urine, and facial bone irregularities in severe cases. 
• Types of Thalassemia: 
  • Alpha Thalassemia: Caused by defective alpha-globin genes inherited from both parents. 
    • Severity depends on the number of defective genes. 
  • Beta Thalassemia: Caused by defects in beta-globin genes. 
    • Symptoms range from mild to severe, depending on the number and type of defective genes. 
• Approximately 280 million people worldwide are affected by thalassemia, with an estimated 4.4 out of every 10,000 live births impacted by the disorder globally. 

Read more: Thalassemia Bal Sewa Yojna