World Development Report 2024

For Prelims: World Bank, European Union, Digitalization, Gross Domestic Product, Gini index, Inflation, Digital Public Infrastructure, Green hydrogen, Renewable Energy, Production Linked Incentive Scheme, International Monetary Fund

For Mains: World Development Report 2024, Global Economic Impact, Indian Economy and Middle Income Trap

Source: TH

Why in News?

A recent World Bank report titled "World Development Report 2024: The Middle Income Trap" has highlighted significant challenges faced by over 100 countries, including India, in achieving high-income status in the coming decades.

What are the Key Highlights of the World Development Report 2024?

• Middle Income Trap:
  • India is among 100 countries, including China, at risk of falling into the "middle income trap," where countries struggle to transition from middle-income to high-income status.
    • India is at a crucial juncture, benefiting from favorable demographics and advancements in digitalization, but faces a tougher external environment compared to the past.
    • India's aim to become a developed nation by 2047 requires a comprehensive approach that enhances overall economic performance, rather than focusing on isolated sectors.
  • The report notes that only 34 middle-income economies have transitioned to high-income status since 1990, often due to special circumstances like European Union integration or oil reserves.
  • Middle-income countries face challenges in sustaining economic growth due to diminishing returns on physical capital.
    • While low-income countries benefit from building physical capital and improving basic education like India in the 1980s, where capital deepening was crucial, middle-income countries encounter diminishing returns as they invest further.
    • Simply increasing saving and investment rates to meet growth targets isn't sufficient; these countries also need to address factors beyond physical capital.
      • Despite having relatively high capital endowments, middle-income economies struggle with productivity issues, highlighting that physical capital alone isn't the main barrier to further growth.
  • The World Bank criticizes many middle-income countries for using outdated economic strategies focused mainly on expanding investment.
• Global Economic Impact:
  • Middle-income countries are home to six billion people, representing 75% of the global population, and generate over 40% of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
    • The success or failure of these countries in achieving high-income status will significantly impact global economic prosperity.
• Per Capita Income Disparity:
  • India is identified as the fastest growing major economy, but it would take 75 years for its per capita income to reach a quarter of the US income levels if current trends continue.
    • China would take over 10 years, Indonesia nearly 70 years, and India 75 years to reach a quarter of US income per capita.
• Challenges and Risks:
  • Middle-income countries face significant obstacles, including ageing populations, rising debt, geopolitical and trade frictions, and environmental concerns.
    • These countries are at risk of not achieving reasonably prosperous societies by the middle of the century if they continue with current trends.
• Strategic Recommendations:
  • 3i Strategy: Report recommended a three-phase approach for countries to reach high-income status:
    • 1i Phase: Focus on investment for low-income countries.
    • 2i Phase: Investment and infusion of foreign technologies for lower-middle-income countries.
    • 3i Phase: Investment, infusion, and innovation for upper-middle-income countries.
  • The report highlighted South Korea as an example, starting with a per capita income of USD 1,200 in 1960, South Korea reached USD 33,000 by 2023 by sequentially adopting the 3i strategy.
• Policy Recommendations:
  • India's aim to become a developed nation requires a comprehensive approach that enhances overall economic performance, rather than focusing on isolated sectors.
  • Focus on horizontal policies rather than vertical debates (e.g., manufacturing vs. services).
  • Emphasize improving education and skills to enable better absorption of technology and innovation.
  • Strengthen connections between universities and industries to enhance knowledge transfer.
  • India shows potential in technology preparedness, with a good track record in digitalization. However, there is a need for greater dynamism in firms to absorb and utilize these technologies effectively.
  • The report highlights the prevalence of microenterprises in India, suggesting that barriers exist for productive firms to grow due to policies favoring smaller firms.

What is the Middle Income Trap?

• The middle-income trap refers to a situation where a country, after reaching a middle-income status, struggles to transition to high-income status.
  • This typically happens when economic growth slows down after an initial period of rapid progress, and the country remains stuck at a middle-income level without advancing further to high-income levels.
• According to the World Bank, the Middle Income Trap refers to the economic stagnation that countries encounter when their GDP per capita reaches about 10% of the United States level, or around USD 8,000 currently.
• Low-income countries often experience rapid growth when transitioning to middle-income levels due to factors such as low wages, cheap labor, and basic technology catch-up.
  • At the middle-income stage, countries may face stagnation due to exhaustion of initial growth drivers, institutional weaknesses, income inequality, and lack of innovation.
• Current Status: By the end of 2023, 108 countries were classified as middle-income, with GDP per capita between USD 1,136 and USD 13,845.
  • These countries house 75% of the global population and generate over 40% of global GDP, contributing to more than 60% of carbon emissions.
  • Until 2006, the World Bank categorised India as a low-income nation. In 2007, India transitioned to the lower-middle income group and has remained in that classification since then.
    • Economists view that India’s growth has been sluggish at lower-middle-income levels, with per capita income stuck between USD 1,000 and USD 3,800. Emphasized that India’s growth has been driven primarily by the top 100 million people and warned that this model might not be sustainable.

What Challenges Must India Overcome to Improve the Income Status?

• Income Inequality: India continues to grapple with high levels of consumption inequality, with a Gini index of around 35 over the past two decades. This inequality limits broad-based economic growth and hinders inclusive development.
  • Although India made significant strides in reducing extreme poverty between 2011 and 2019, the pace of poverty reduction has slowed, especially post the Covid-19 pandemic. This indicates ongoing struggles to address deep-seated economic disparities.
• Balancing Growth and Inflation: Higher interest rates, aimed at controlling inflation, can temper demand and impact economic growth. India needs to manage monetary policy effectively to balance growth with inflationary pressures.
  • Strategic fiscal management is crucial to support growth without exacerbating inflation.
• Income Per Capita: India’s per-capita income is significantly below the upper-middle-income threshold of USD 4,256. Achieving high-income status will require substantial growth in per-capita income over the coming years.
  • Although India is projected to approach the USD 7 trillion economy milestone by FY31, it must sustain a 6.7% average annual growth rate to reach this target and transition to an upper-middle-income status.
• Labor Force Participation: Despite improvements in employment indicators, concerns remain about the quality of jobs, real wage growth, and the low participation of women in the labor force.
  • These issues affect the overall economic productivity and inclusivity of growth.
  • The Economic Survey 2023-24 notes that India needs to generate an average of nearly 78.5 lakh non-farm jobs annually until 2030 to cater to the rising workforce.
• Economic Diversification: While mining, manufacturing, construction, and services are key growth drivers, India must ensure continued diversification to avoid over-reliance on any single sector.
  • India aims for the manufacturing sector to contribute beyond 20% of GDP by FY31. Sustaining this growth will depend on increasing global competitiveness, enhancing value chains, and supporting green transitions.
• Environmental and Climate Resilience: India’s aspiration to achieve high-income status by 2047 must align with its goal of net-zero emissions by 2070.
  • Balancing economic growth with climate resilience is a complex challenge, requiring significant investments in green technologies and sustainable practices.
  • The country must ensure that its growth path is resilient to climate impacts while delivering broad-based benefits to its population.

What are the Factors Supporting India's Improvement in Income Status?

• Global Offshoring: Increased outsourcing of services such as software development, customer service, and business process outsourcing to India.
  • Acceptance of work-from-home and work-from-India models, potentially doubling employment in outsourced jobs to over 11 million by 2030 as global spending on outsourcing is expected to grow from USD 180 billion annually to around USD 500 billion by 2030.
• Digitalization: India's Aadhaar program and IndiaStack (Digital Public Infrastructure) are driving a digital transformation, enabling greater financial inclusion and credit access.
  • India's credit-to-GDP ratio could rise from 57% to 100% in the next decade, and consumer spending is expected to more than double from USD 2 trillion to USD 4.9 trillion, with the greatest gains in non-grocery retail.
• Energy Transition: Significant investment in renewables such as biogas, ethanol, Green hydrogen, wind, solar, and hydroelectric power.
  • Daily energy consumption is expected to increase by 60%, reducing reliance on imported energy and improving living conditions.
  • The energy transition creates new demand for electric solutions, driving investment growth and a virtuous cycle of investment, jobs, and income.
• Manufacturing Sector: Corporate tax cuts, investment incentives, and infrastructure spending are driving capital investments.
  • Manufacturing's share of GDP is projected to increase from 15.6% to 21% by 2031, potentially doubling India's export market share.
  • India continues to open its economy to global investors by raising Foreign Direct Investment limits, removing regulatory barriers, developing infrastructure and improving the business environment.
  • India’s 14 Production Linked Incentive Scheme have the potential to significantly boost production, employment, increase manufacturing activities, and contribute to economic growth over the next five years, thereby having the potential to change the manufacturing ecosystem in the country.
• Services Sector: Services sector is expected to grow at 6.9% between fiscals 2025 and 2031. Services will continue to be the dominant driver of India's growth.
• Economic Size: Potential doubling of GDP from USD 3.5 trillion to over USD 7 trillion by 2031.
  • Bombay Stock Exchange expected to grow at 11% annually, reaching a market capitalization of USD 10 trillion by 2030.
  • Projections indicate that India will become the world's third-largest economy by 2031.
  • According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), India's current GDP per capita is around USD 2,850, placing it in the lower-middle-income category. However, CRISIL's report projects India's GDP per capita to reach USD 4,500 by 2031.
• Consumption and Income Distribution:
  • Rising income levels can lead to a significant increase in overall consumption.
  • Increased per capita income and economic growth will boost domestic consumption.
  • Consumer Spending is expected to more than double from USD 2 trillion in 2022 to USD 4.9 trillion by the end of the decade, with notable gains in non-grocery retail, leisure, and household goods.

What Strategies Should India Adopt to Avoid the Middle-Income Trap?

• Address Income Inequality: Implement policies to ensure a more equitable distribution of wealth. This could include progressive taxation, increased social spending, and targeted subsidies for the lower-income segments.
  • Strengthen social safety nets and support systems to reduce the disparity between different income groups and regions.
• Enhance Economic Diversification: Focus on diversifying the economy beyond traditional sectors. Invest in emerging industries such as technology, renewable energy, and advanced manufacturing.
  • Encourage development in economically lagging regions to prevent over-reliance on certain areas and spread economic benefits more evenly.
• Increase Productivity and Innovation: Foster innovation through investments in research and development, and support tech-driven industries to enhance productivity.
  • Focus on improving education and skills to meet the demands of a modern economy. Emphasize vocational training and higher education.
• Support Local Manufacturing and Production: Encourage local manufacturing through policies such as the PLI schemes. This can help make essential goods more affordable and competitive.
  • Tap into local skills and resources by promoting manufacturing in states with potential but lower costs. This approach can also address regional disparities and unemployment.
• Foster Inclusive Growth: Ensure that the production and distribution of essential goods like food, healthcare, and education are prioritized, making them affordable for all segments of the population.
  • Implement policies that create job opportunities and improve living standards across different regions and communities.
• Strengthen Economic Institutions and Governance: Improve the efficiency and transparency of economic institutions to reduce corruption and ensure that resources are used effectively.
  • Undertake structural reforms to streamline regulations, ease the business environment, and attract investment.
• Focus on Sustainable Development: Align economic growth strategies with environmental sustainability goals. Invest in green technologies and ensure that development does not compromise environmental health.
  • Develop strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change and build resilience in vulnerable sectors.
• Promote Financial Inclusion: Enhance financial inclusion by improving access to credit and financial services for small businesses and individuals in underserved areas.
  • Leverage digital platforms to increase financial inclusion and improve the efficiency of financial transactions.

World Bank

• The World Bank, created in 1944 was established at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire in 1944 as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
• The IBRD later became the World Bank. The World Bank Group is a global partnership of five institutions working for sustainable solutions to reduce poverty and build shared prosperity in developing countries.
• The World Bank is one of the United Nations' specialized agencies and has 189 member countries, including India.
• Five Development Institutions of World Bank: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation (IFC), Multilateral Guarantee Agency (MIGA), International, and Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).
  • India is not a member of ICSID but has been accessing funds from the World Bank (mainly through IBRD and IDA) for various development projects. India is one of the founding members of IBRD, IDA and IFC.
• Major Reports: Ease of Doing Business (Stopped publishing), Human Capital Index , World Development Report , and Global Economic Prospect (GEP) Report.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Evaluate the criticism by the World Bank on outdated economic strategies used by many middle-income countries. What alternative strategies should India adopt to avoid the middle-income trap?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q. With reference to ‘IFC Masala Bonds’, sometimes seen in the news, which of the statements given below is/ are correct? (2016)

1. The International Finance Corporation, which offers these bonds, is an arm of the World Bank.
2. They are the rupee-denominated bonds and are a source of debt financing for the public and private sector.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Ans: (c)

Q. India’s ranking in the ‘Ease of Doing Business Index’ is sometimes seen in the news. Which of the following has declared that ranking? (2016)

(a) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
(b) World Economic Forum
(c) World Bank
(d) World Trade Organization (WTO)

Ans: (c)

NOTTO Annual Report 2023-24

For Prelims: National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO),Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994, Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Rules 2014, National Organ Transplant Program (NOTP), Organ Trafficking.

For Mains: Status of Organ Transplant in Indiaand associated challenges.

Source: IE

The National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO) released its annual report for the year 2023-24 on Indian Organ Donation Day (IODD) on August 3, 2024.

• According to NOTTO, in 2023, India reached a significant milestone by surpassing 1,000 deceased organ donors in a single year for the first time, breaking the record set in 2022.

Indian Organ Donation Day (IODD)

• It is observed annually on 3rd August since 2010 to augment awareness about brain stem death and organ donation, dispel myths and misconceptions associated with organ donation and motivate and encourage the citizens of the country to donate organs and tissues after death.
• In 2024, “Angdaan Jan Jagrukta Abhiyaan” was launched for various awareness activities.
  • Under the Abhiyaan, the month of July was observed as the Organ Donation Month.
• A person after his death can give new life to up to 8 people by donating vital organs namely Kidney, Liver, Lung, Heart, Pancreas and Intestine and improve quality life of many more by donating tissues like cornea, skin, bone and heart valve etc.

What are Key Highlights of the Report?

Finding	Details
Gender Distribution of Donors	63% of living donors were women. 77% of deceased donors were men.
Transplants by Region	Delhi-NCR: Nearly 78% of foreign national transplants. Delhi: 4,426 transplants total, with foreign nationals accounting for over 32%. Rajasthan: 116 transplants to foreign nationals. West Bengal: 88 transplants to foreign nationals.
Gender Distribution of Donors	63% of living donors were women. 77% of deceased donors were men.
Deceased Donor Milestone	More than 1,000 deceased organ donors in a single year for the first time. Deceased-donor transplants increased from 837 in 2013 to 2,935 in 2023.
Transplants with Organs from Unrelated Deceased Donors	Nine transplants to foreigners with organs from unrelated deceased donors. Locations: Three in Tamil Nadu, two each in Delhi, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
Foreigners' Allocation Rule	Organs from deceased donors are allocated to foreigners only when no matching Indian patients are available.
Organ Donation Rate	Less than 1 per million population.

Note: Presently, India ranks third in the world in terms of organ transplantation and second in terms of corneal transplantation.

What are the Regulatory Framework Related to the Organ Transplantation in India?

• Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994 (THOTA):
  • Organ donation and transplantation in India are regulated under the THOTA (amended in 2011) having the following provisions:
    • A transplant can come from organs donated by deceased individuals or from a living donor who is known to the recipient.
    • Altruistic donations from distant relatives, in-laws, or long-time friends are permitted, but they undergo extra checks to ensure no financial exchange has occurred.
    • Unrelated donors must provide documents and photos to show a long-term connection or friendship with the recipient.
    • Offering or paying for organs, arranging or advertising such deals, seeking organ suppliers, or helping to make false documents can result in up to 10 years in jail and a fine of up to Rs 1 crore.
    • Brain stem death is legally recognised as death under THOTA since 1994.
  • The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Rules 2014 were notified for promoting organ donation from deceased donors.
• National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO):
  • NOTTO, an apex organisation at the national level, was established to provide a national system for organ procurement and distribution.
• National Organ Transplantation Guidelines:
  • Removed Age Cap: The upper age limit has been removed as people are now living longer.
    • Earlier, according to the NOTTO guidelines, an end-stage organ failure patient above 65 years of age was prohibited from registering to receive the organ.
  • No Domicile Requirement: The domicile requirement to register as an organ recipient in a particular state has been removed under a ‘One Nation, One Policy’ move.
    • Now a needy patient can register to receive an organ in any state of his or her choice and will also be able to get the surgery done there.
  • No Fees for Registration: The Centre has instructed states to discontinue the registration fee that was previously charged for this purpose.
• Organ Transport Policy:
  • Recently, the Union government has finalised a uniform policy to speed up the process of transporting a live organ between hospitals or cities.
    • It was created by Niti Aayog with input from several ministries like civil aviation, railways, transport and highways etc.

What are the Ethical Concerns Related to Organ Donation and Transplantation?

• Living Persons:
  • Violates the Traditional Rule of Medicine: Kidney donors are vulnerable to urinary and chest infections, which violates the first traditional rule of medicine, primum non nocere (above all, do no harm). One person becomes a patient to benefit another person who is already a patient.
  • Donation is Prone to Trafficking: Organ donation is susceptible to trafficking when there is illegal and unethical activity involved in the acquisition, transportation, or transplantation of organs. In its 1991 document, the World Health Organisation (WHO) expressed worry about the increase in illegal trade of human organs, especially from living donors who are not related to the recipients.
  • Emotional Coercion: The relationship between the donor and recipient influences the donor's motivation for organ donation. Living related donors are genetically related to the recipient and often feel obligated due to family ties and emotional bonds. Ethical concerns include the potential for undue influence, emotional pressure and coercion.
• Deceased Person:
  • Consent and Autonomy: It is important to determine whether the person had expressed their consent or refusal for organ donation while they were alive. If the person's wishes are unknown, it can be ethically challenging to make decisions on their behalf.
  • Allocation and Fairness: Ethical concerns can emerge when there are disparities in access to transplantation based on factors such as wealth, social status or geographical location.
  • Transparency and Public Trust: The ethical concerns related to disclosure of information, the handling of organ procurement and transplantation procedures, and the management of organ donation registries are important considerations.

What are the Challenges in Organ Transplantation?

• Donor Organ Supply: In India, the demand for organ donations far exceeds the available supply. An estimated around 1.8 lakh persons suffer from renal failure every year, however the number of renal transplants done is around 6000 only. The organ donation rate is still less than 1 per million.The need is for 65 organs per one million population.
• Peri-Transplant Donor Tissue Damage: Aging and diseases reduce donor organ quality, leading to Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury (IRI). Many organs are discarded due to inferior quality, impacting transplant success rates.
• Outdated Preservation Techniques: Many hospitals still rely on traditional static cold storage methods, which may not be as effective as newer technologies. Not all transplant centres in India have access to advanced preservation technologies like hypothermic or normothermic machine perfusion.
• Chronic Rejection in Organ Transplantation: Long-term survival rates for transplanted organs have not significantly improved over the past 20 years. Current anti-rejection therapies have remained unchanged, with only modest improvements in survival rates.
• Lack of awareness: There is a lack of awareness among people about the importance of organ donation and transplantation. E.g., lack of Awareness of concept of Brain Stem Death among stakeholders

What are the WHO’s Important Guiding Principles Related to Organ Donation?

• Guiding Principle 1: Cells, tissues, and organs can be removed from deceased persons for transplantation if legal consent is obtained and there is no evidence of the deceased's objection.
• Guiding Principle 2: Physicians determining that a potential donor has died should not be directly involved in cell, tissue or organ removal from the donor or subsequent transplantation procedures; nor should they be responsible for the care of any intended recipient of such cells, tissues and organs.
• Guiding Principle 3: Deceased donations should maximise therapeutic potential, while living adult donors should comply with domestic regulations. Typically, living donors should have a genetic, legal or emotional connection to their recipients.
• Guiding Principle 4: No organs should be taken from living minors for transplantation, except for limited exceptions allowed by national law. Special measures must be implemented to safeguard minors, and whenever possible, their consent should be obtained before donation.
  • The same principles apply to legally incompetent individuals (who are not able to testify or stand trial).
• Guiding Principle 5: Donations of cells, tissues, and organs must be voluntary and without monetary compensation. The sale or purchase of these items for transplantation should be prohibited.

Way Forward

• Strengthen Organ Donation and Awareness Programs: Launch comprehensive public awareness campaigns to educate the public about the importance of organ donation and how it saves lives.
  • Integrate organ donation education into school curricula and community programs to foster a culture of donation from a young age.
• Enhance Infrastructure and Facilities: Adopt advanced organ preservation techniques, including hypothermic and normothermic machine perfusion systems. Implement standardised protocols for organ procurement, preservation, and transport across all transplant centres.
• Advance Research and Innovation: Investigate and implement emerging technologies such as bioengineered organs, xenotransplantation, and nanotechnology in transplantation.
• Foster Ethical and Regulatory Frameworks: Create and promote ethical guidelines for organ donation, transplantation, and research, addressing issues such as consent and equitable access.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. What are the challenges involved in transplantation of organs in India? How organ transplantation rate can be improved in India?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Prelims

Q. Consider the following statements: (2020)

1. Genetic changes can be introduced in the cells that produce eggs or sperms of a prospective parent.
2. A person’s genome can be edited before birth at the early embryonic stage.
3. Human induced pluripotent stem cells can be injected into the embryo of a pig.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b)  2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only 
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (d)

Q.With reference to the scientific progress of ancient India, which of the statements given below are correct? (2012)

1. Different kinds of specialised surgical instruments were in common use by the 1st century AD.
2. Transplant of internal organs in the human body had begun by the beginning of the 3rd century AD.
3. The concept of sine of an angle was known in 5th century AD.
4. The concept of cyclic quadrilaterals was known in 7th century AD.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (c)

---

Mains

Q. Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments? (2017)

FAO Guidelines on Wildfire Management

For Prelims: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme (UNEP), India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021

For Mains: Significance of Forest Resources and Measures to Manage Forest Fires.

Source: FAO

Why in News?

Recently, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) released the updated "Integrated Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines: Principles and Strategic Actions."

• These new guidelines revise the previous FAO fire management guidelines from two decades ago to address current climate crisis challenges.

What are the New FAO Fire Management Guidelines?

• Integration of Knowledge:
  • The guidelines stress the importance of integrating science and traditional knowledge from Indigenous Peoples and local knowledge holders.
  • This approach enhances fire management decisions, helps in preventing wildfires, managing fire outbreaks, and restoring areas affected by severe burning.
  • Gender inclusion and diverse fire management knowledge are also promoted.
• Impact and Adoption:
  • Since the original guidelines' release nearly 20 years ago, many countries have developed public policies and training programs based on them.
  • The updated guidelines are expected to see broader adoption globally.

Note:

• FAO and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) established the Global Fire Management Hub (Fire Hub) at the 8^th International Wildland Fire Conference in May 2023.
• It is supported by the governments of Canada, France, Germany, Portugal, the Republic of Korea and the United States of America.
• It aims to unite the global fire management community and enhance national capacities for implementing integrated fire management strategies.

What is a Wildfire?

• About:
  • Also known as bush, vegetation, or forest fire, a wildfire is any uncontrolled and non-prescribed burning of plants in natural settings such as forests, grasslands, brushlands, or tundras.
  • It consumes natural fuels and spreads based on environmental conditions like wind and topography.
• Classification:
  • Surface Fire: Burns primarily along the ground, consuming surface litter like leaves, twigs, and dry grasses.
  • Underground Fire/Zombie Fire: Low-intensity fires that consume organic matter beneath the surface. They spread slowly underground, making them hard to detect and control, and can burn for months.
  • Canopy or Crown Fires: Spread through the upper canopy of trees, often fueled by high winds and dry conditions, and can be very intense and difficult to control.
  • Controlled Deliberate Fires: Also known as prescribed burns, these are intentionally set by forest management agencies to reduce fuel loads, mitigate wildfire risks, and promote ecosystem health. They are carefully planned and executed under specific conditions.
• Reasons:
  • Human Activities: Many forest fires are caused by human activities such as discarded cigarettes, campfires, burning debris, and other similar actions.
    • Increased urbanisation and human presence in forested areas raise the risk of accidental fires.
    • Poachers and illegal smugglers may set fires to distract forest officials or eliminate evidence of their activities.
  • Weather Conditions: Exceptionally hot and dry weather, particularly in southern India during early summer, creates conditions conducive to fire spread. High temperatures, low humidity, and calm winds increase fire risks.
  • Aridity: Above-normal temperatures, clear skies, and lack of rainfall in southern India lead to increased aridity, drying out vegetation and making it more prone to ignition and rapid fire spread.
  • Early Availability of Dry Biomass: Above-normal temperatures before the summer season have led to an early buildup of dry biomass in forests, including the flammable leaves of chir forests, increasing fire risks and intensity.

Forest Fires in India

• Forest Fire Season:
  • The forest fire season in India extends from November to June, with peak activity from February onward as summer approaches. April and May are typically the worst months for fires.
  • Based on the forest inventory records (of Forest Survey of India), 54.40% of forests in India are exposed to occasional fires, 7.49% to moderately frequent fires and 2.40% to high incidence levels.
  • According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021 by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), 35.47% of forest cover is classified as fire-prone.
• Regions:
  • Severe fires are prevalent in dry deciduous forests, while evergreen, semi-evergreen, and montane temperate forests are less prone to fires.
  • Most vulnerable regions include Northeast India, Odisha, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Uttarakhand.
• Present Scenario (2024):
  • The forest department of Uttarakhand has reported that between January and June 2024, there have been 1,309 forest fires in Uttarakhand up from 241 over the same period last year and 733 for the entirety of 2023.
  • The highest number of forest fires reported are in Mizoram (3,738), Manipur (1,702), Assam (1,652), Meghalaya (1,252), and Maharashtra (1,215), according to FSI data.
  • ISRO satellite data indicates an increase in forest fires since early March 2024, affecting areas such as the Konkan belt in Maharashtra, south-coastal Gujarat, southern Rajasthan, southwestern Madhya Pradesh, coastal and interior Odisha, and adjoining Jharkhand. South India, including Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, has also seen recent fire incidents.
• Government Initiatives:
  • National Action Plan for Forest Fires (NAPFF): Launched in 2018 to reduce forest fires by informing and empowering forest fringe communities and incentivizing collaboration with state forest departments.
  • Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme (FPM): Launched in 2017, it is the only government-sponsored program dedicated to assisting states in managing forest fires.

Way Forward - NDMA Recommendations on Wildfires Based on Best Global Practices

• Fire Suppression Risks: Relying solely on fire suppression increases fuel load and can lead to uncontrollable fires.
• Prescribed Burning: Must be carefully managed to prevent spreading; consider utilising organic forest material.
• Community Engagement: Involve local communities for forest stewardship and livelihood, enhancing ownership and reducing fire risks.
• Trans-Boundary Management: Forest fires do not adhere to political boundaries; management must be coordinated across borders.
• Risk Communication: Develop standardised, clear alerts including smoke/pollution levels to ensure accurate information during fires.
• Urban-Forest Interface: Implement building codes and manage construction materials to mitigate fire hazards in urban-forest areas.
• Commercial Areas: Ensure businesses and services in forest areas follow fire safety precautions and limit ignition sources.
• Training Local Responders: Train and equip local communities as first responders; consider remuneration for volunteer firefighters.
• Specialised Forces: Train specialised troops, similar to smokejumpers, to handle fires in remote areas.
• Recovery Efforts: Focus on ecosystem recovery and avoid monoculture; maintain seed banks for native plants.
• Utility Management: Place utilities underground or maintain them before fire seasons to reduce fire-related accidents.
• Firefighting Plans: Prepare action plans based on climate, terrain, vegetation, and water availability; include drought measures.
• Bioeconomy Development: Create functional value chains with community involvement to support livelihoods and control fires.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Evaluate the role of human activities and climatic factors in the incidence and severity of forest fires in India. What measures can be implemented to reduce the occurrence of forest fires and their adverse effects?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q. Consider the following:

1. Carbon monoxide

2. Methane

3. Ozone

4. Sulfur dioxide

Which of the above are released into the atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue? (2019)

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (d)

Woody Encroachment in Grasslands

Source: TH

For Prelims: Carbon Sequestration, Climate Change.

For Mains: Significance of Forest Resources and Measures for Conservation of Resources.

Why in News?

Increasing tree cover is often seen as a positive outcome of biodiversity conservation, and a much-needed effort to combat climate change.

• However, a study published by the Universities of Witwatersrand, Cape Town, and Oxford reported that more trees in open ecosystems like savannahs and grasslands have substantially reduced the number of native grassland birds.

What has the Study Revealed?

• Grasslands and Savannas:
  • Grasslands and savannahs are diverse habitats found in tropical and temperate regions, covering nearly 40% of the Earth's landmass.
  • These ecosystems are home to a variety of species, including large herbivores like elephants and rhinoceroses, and grassland birds such as bustards and floricans. Despite their importance, these habitats are rapidly declining due to various threats.
• Woody Encroachment:
  • Woody encroachment refers to the gradual transformation of open habitats into areas with higher tree and shrub density.
  • This process results in the homogenization of ecosystems, shifting from a diverse grassy understory to a uniform woody cover.
  • Factors such as climate change, increased atmospheric CO2, and disruption of natural disturbance regimes like grazing and fire contribute to this phenomenon.
• Effects on Ecosystems:
  • The increase in tree cover can have detrimental effects on grassland ecosystems.
  • Higher CO₂ levels promote the growth of deep-rooted woody plants, which can overshadow and suppress grasses.
  • This shift in vegetation alters soil conditions and faunal associations, leading to declines in grassland species and disrupting ecological balance.
• Global and Local Impact:
  • In South America, fire suppression is a major driver, while in Australia and Africa, increased CO₂ and variations in rainfall play significant roles.
  • In India, grasslands face threats from both natural encroachment and large-scale tree plantation programs.
  • Studies have shown significant woody encroachment in national parks in India and Nepal, with grassland habitats shrinking by 34% and tree cover increasing by 8.7% over the past three decades.
• Human Influence:
  • Human activities, including colonial-era conservation policies and modern tree plantation programs, have exacerbated woody encroachment.
  • Historical policies viewed open ecosystems as "wastelands," leading to their conversion for timber and agricultural use. Today, the focus on carbon sequestration further pressures these habitats.
• Mitigation and Conservation:
  • To address the issue of woody encroachment, it is crucial to gather more evidence on its impact, conduct long-term ecological monitoring, and challenge outdated colonial terminologies that misclassify open ecosystems.
  • Effective conservation strategies must consider the ecological value of grasslands and promote practices that maintain their biodiversity and resilience.

What is the Impact of Declining Grasslands?

• Ecological Impacts:
  • Loss of Biodiversity: Grasslands support diverse species of plants, insects, birds, and mammals. Their decline leads to habitat loss, threatening species that are specially adapted to these environments.
  • Disruption of Ecosystem Services: Grasslands provide vital ecosystem services such as soil stabilisation, water filtration, and carbon sequestration.
    • Their degradation can reduce these services, impacting soil health, water quality, and climate regulation.
    • Their decline can lead to increased atmospheric CO₂ levels, exacerbating climate change.
  • Altered Fire Regimes: Grasslands help in maintaining natural disturbances like fire. When grasslands decline, the frequency and intensity of fires can change, which can further alter the ecosystem dynamics.
• Environmental Impacts:
  • Increased Soil Erosion: Grasslands help bind soil with their root systems. Without them, soils are more prone to erosion, leading to loss of topsoil and degradation of land.
  • Altered Water Cycles: Grasslands play a role in maintaining hydrological cycles by regulating water infiltration and runoff. Their loss can lead to changes in local and regional water cycles, potentially causing flooding or reduced water availability.
• Socio-Economic Impacts:
  • Impact on Livelihoods: Many communities rely on grasslands for grazing livestock and other agricultural activities. The decline in grasslands can negatively affect these livelihoods, leading to economic hardship for pastoralists and farmers.
  • Reduced Agricultural Productivity: The loss of grasslands can lead to a decrease in soil fertility and productivity, affecting crop yields and food security.

Way Forward

• Conservation and Restoration Efforts: Designate protected areas and conservation reserves to safeguard remaining grasslands from development and other threats.
• Restore Degraded Lands: Implement ecological restoration projects to rehabilitate degraded grasslands, including replanting native grasses and controlling invasive species.
• Promote Sustainable Agriculture: Encourage practices that reduce soil disturbance, such as no-till farming and rotational grazing, to maintain soil health and prevent erosion.
• Implement Controlled Grazing: Develop and enforce grazing management plans that prevent overgrazing and allow for natural recovery periods of grassland ecosystems.
• Control Invasive Plants: Monitor and manage invasive species that outcompete native grasses and disrupt the ecosystem balance.
• Enforce Land Use Regulations: Strengthen and enforce policies and regulations that prevent the conversion of grasslands to agricultural or urban uses.
• Support Incentives for Conservation: Provide financial incentives and support for landowners who engage in grassland conservation and sustainable land management practices.
• Involve Local Communities: Engage local communities in conservation efforts, including education about the value of grasslands and involving them in restoration projects.

Drishti Mains Question:

Declining grasslands are a significant concern for global biodiversity and ecosystem health. Discuss the major impacts of declining grasslands on ecosystems and biodiversity.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q. The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees, but extensive areas have no trees. The forest development in such areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following are such conditions? (2021)

1. Burrowing animals and termites

2. Fire

3. Grazing herbivores

4. Seasonal rainfall

5. Soil properties

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 4 and 5
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1, 3 and 5

Ans: (c)

Commercial Cultivation of HT Basmati Rice

Source: HT

Why in News?

Recently, the Indian government for the first time allowed the commercial cultivation of two non-transgenic varieties of herbicide-tolerant (HT) basmati rice: Pusa Basmati 1979 and Pusa Basmati 1985.

• It has been developed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) to promote sustainable paddy cultivation practices that conserve water and reduce carbon
  emissions.

Note:

• Transgenic refers to a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) or cell whose genome has been altered by the introduction of one or more foreign DNA sequences or genes from
  another species by artificial means.
  • GMO is an organism that contains a genetically modified genome.
  • All transgenic organisms are GMOs.
• Non-Transgenic does not involve inserting any foreign DNA.

What are the Key Features of the New Varieties of Rice?

• These new varieties contain a mutated AcetoLactate Synthase (ALS) gene making it possible for farmers to spray Imazethapyr (a herbicide) to control weeds.
  • Mutated ALS gene prevents the ALS enzymes from having binding sites for Imazethapyr, ensuring that amino acid synthesis remains unaffected.
  • The ALS gene in rice encodes an enzyme responsible for synthesising amino acids essential for the crop's growth and development.
    • While, in normal rice plants, the herbicide binds to the ALS enzymes, inhibiting amino acid production.
• Imazethapyr effectively targets a variety of broadleaf, grassy, and sedge weeds but cannot distinguish between the crop and invasive plants.
  • As a result, these plants can tolerate the herbicide, which kills only the weeds.
  • Since no foreign genes are involved in the process, herbicide tolerance is achieved through mutation breeding, making these plants non-Genetically Modified Organisms (non-GMOs).
• Significance: These HT rice varieties offer several benefits such as eliminating the need for nursery preparation, puddling, transplanting, and field flooding, reducing methane emissions, a major greenhouse gas by supporting Direct Seeding of Rice (DSR).

Concerns Regarding the Use of HT Variety of Rice

• There is a risk of developing "super weeds" that become resistant to herbicides through repeated use, making them harder to control.
• There are worries about potential herbicide residue accumulation in food products, despite developers' assurances that the grain is residue-free.
• While India permits certain herbicides like imazethapyr, the European Union bans them, which could impact international trade and safety standards.
• Questions arise about the long-term sustainability of HT crops, as increased herbicide use over time might lead to ecological concerns.

Paddy Transplantation vs Direct Seeding of Rice (DSR)
Paddy Transplantation	DSR
The field where the seedlings are transplanted has to be “puddled” or tilled in standing water.	The pre-germinated seeds are directly drilled into the field by a tractor- powered machine.
For the first three weeks or so after transplanting, the plants are irrigated almost daily to maintain a water depth of 4-5 cm.	There is no nursery preparation or transplantation involved in this method.
Farmers continue giving water every 2-3 days even for the next four-five weeks when the crop is in tillering (stem development) stage.	Farmers have to only level their land and give one pre-sowing irrigation.
Paddy transplantation is both labour- and water-intensive.	It is water and labour efficient and reduces methane emissions due to a shorter flooding period and comparatively decreased soil disturbance.

Rice:

• It is a kharif crop that requires high temperature (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
• In southern states and West Bengal, the climatic conditions allow the cultivation of two or three crops of rice in an agricultural year.
  • In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’.
• About one-fourth of the total cropped area in India is under rice cultivation.
  • Leading producer states: West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab.
  • High Yielding States: Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal and Kerala.
• India is the second-largest producer of rice after China.
• Basmati rice is India’s top agricultural-export produce. In 2022-23, India exported 4.56 million tonnes of this valued at USD 4.78 billion.
  • Basmati's distinctive fragrance is attributed to 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP), an organic compound produced during maturation that gives this rice grain its nutty and
    fragrant aroma.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Q. What is/are the advantages/advantages of zero tillage in agriculture? (2020)

1. Sowing of wheat is possible without burning the residue of the previous crops.
2. Without the need for a nursery of rice saplings, direct planting of paddy seeds in the wet soil is possible.
3. Carbon sequestration in the soil is possible.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: D

WCC to Host Programme for Kashmiri Artisans

Source: TH

The World Crafts Council (WCC) will hold a knowledge exchange programme for artisans from Kashmir with cities that influenced the craft aesthetic here centuries ago. Earlier in June 2024, the WCC named Srinagar a World Craft City.

• The move will bring together artisans with similar culture and specialisation, so that they benefit from each other, both culturally and technically.
• The WCC-International was founded in 1964 and Smt Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, being one of the founding members, attended the 1^st WCC General Assembly. The main objective of the WCC is to strengthen the status of crafts in cultural and economic life.

• Important crafts from Kashmir:

  • 7 crafts from Kashmir-Kani Shawl, Pashmina, Sozni, Paper-Machie, Walnut Wood Carving, Khatamband, and Hand Knotted Carpets, have received Geographical Indication (GI) certification.

• About Srinagar’s Craft:

  • According to an Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage-Kashmir (INTACH-Kashmir) report of 2024, Srinagar is one of the ancient cities of South Asia with a continuously recorded history of about 1,500 years.

    • The INTACH was founded in 1984 in New Delhi with the vision to spearhead heritage awareness and conservation in India. Today, INTACH is recognized as one of the world’s largest heritage organisations.

  • The city is known globally for the 'Cashmere' brand and paisley motif.
  • Crafts such as Zanjan and Filigree were introduced by Iranian artisans five centuries ago.
  • Srinagar's carpet tradition began in the late 14^th century with Sufi Saint Sayyid Ali Hamdani.
  • In 2021, it was recognized as a UNESCO Creative City for crafts and folk arts.

Read More: Srinagar: UNESCO Creative Cities Network

India to Explore Lithium in Chile

Source: BL

Coal India Limited (CIL) is planning to explore and extract lithium from the salt flats (areas of flat
land covered with a layer of salt) in Chile.

• Chile has the world's largest lithium reserves (36%) and is the second-largest global producer (32%). It contributes about 36% to global trade.
  • Chile is a part of the "lithium triangle" along with Argentina and Bolivia.
    • Australia and China are the first and third largest producers of Lithium globally.
• Lithium (white gold) is a versatile element used in rechargeable batteries, ceramics, glass, aluminum
  alloys, and pharmaceuticals.
  • It is soft, silvery white metal, the lightest metal of the periodic table. It has high reactivity, low density and excellent electrochemical properties.
  • Lithium reserves in India include Reasi district (J&K), Korba district (Chhattisgarh), Marlagalla area (Mandya district, Karnataka), Koderma (Jharkhand) etc.

Read more...

Issue of OBC Reservation in WB

Source: TH

Recently, the Supreme Court (SC) has directed the West Bengal government to clarify the criteria used to classify 77 castes, predominantly Muslim communities, as Other Backward Classes (OBC) between 2010 and 2012.

• SC has requested the State to clarify the survey methods used to assess the social and educational backwardness of these communities and their representation in public services.
• In May 2024, the Calcutta High Court (HC) annulled all OBC certificates issued by the West Bengal government since 2010 by invalidating specific sections of the West Bengal Backward Classes (Other than SC and ST) (Reservation in Posts) Act of 2012.
  • The HC found the classification and subclassification of OBCs through executive orders and memos to be illegal and violative of Article 16(4) of the Indian Constitution.
  • Article 16(4) allows the state to designate certain appointments or positions for backward classes of citizens who are considered to be underrepresented in public services.
• Similar Religion-based Reservation in Other States:
  • Kerala: Provides an 8% Muslim quota within its 30% OBC quota.
  • Tamil Nadu and Bihar: Also Include Muslim caste groups in their OBC quota.
  • Karnataka: Had a 4% sub-quota for Muslims within the 32% OBC quota.
    • State government in 2023 redistributed this sub-quota among Vokkaligas and Lingayats

Read More: Sub-Categorisation of OBCs, Reservation in India

Hiroshima Day 2024

Source: IE

Hiroshima Day is observed on August 6th to commemorate the anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Japan, by the US during World War II on August 6th, 1945.

• On August 6, 1945, during World War II, the US dropped an atomic bomb called "Little Boy,"on Hiroshima using the B-29 bomber Enola Gay.
  • Approximately 70,000-80,000 people were killed instantly, with many more dying later from injuries and radiation.
• On August 9, 1945, the US dropped a second atomic bomb, "Fat Man” on Nagasaki. This led to Japan’s surrender and marked the end of World War II.
• General Douglas MacArthur and other top commanders supported continued conventional bombing and a planned massive invasion, “Operation Downfall,” which was estimated to result in up to 1 million US casualties.
  • To avoid such high casualties, President Truman decided to use the atomic bomb.
• In December 1941, the US government launched the Manhattan Project to develop the bomb under the leadership of J. Robert Oppenheimer.
• The incident of atomic bombing gave birth to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT),Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Limited Test Ban Treaty, Nuclear Suppliers Group, etc. to restrict proliferation of nuclear weapons.

Read More...