Santhal Hul of 1855

For Prelims: Santhal Hul of 1855, Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act of 1876, Diku, Tribal Revolts, Munda Rebellion

For Mains: Tribal revolts in colonial India, Tribal land rights and colonial policies, Modern Indian history

Source: IE

Why in News?

Recently, the 169^th anniversary of the Santhal Hul of 1855 was commemorated on 30th June 2024, marking a pivotal peasant revolt against British colonial oppression. 

• This uprising led to the enactment of the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act of 1876 and the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908, crucial in preserving tribal land rights and cultural autonomy in India.

What is the Santhal Hul of 1855?

• Historical Background: The Santhal Hul of 1855 was one of the earliest peasant uprisings against British colonial rule in India. Led by four brothers - Sidho, Kanho, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu - along with sisters Phulo and Jhano, the revolt began on 30thJune 1855.
  • The revolt targeted not only the British but also upper castes, zamindars, darogas, and moneylenders, collectively termed 'diku'.
  • It aimed to protect the economic, cultural, and religious rights of the Santhal community.
• Genesis of the Uprising:
  • In 1832, certain areas were designated as ‘Santhal Pargana’ or ‘Damin-i-Koh’, which includes present-day Sahibganj, Godda, Dumka, Deoghar, Pakur, and parts of Jamtara, in present-day Jharkhand. 
    • The area was given to the Santhals who were displaced from various regions under the Bengal Presidency.
  • The Santhals were promised settlement and agriculture in Damin-i-Koh, but instead they faced repressive land-grabbing and begari (bonded labour).
    • Two systems of bonded labour emerged in Santhal territory, known as kamioti and harwahi. 
      • Under kamioti, the borrower had to work for the lender until the loan was repaid, while under harwahi, the borrower had to provide personal services and plough the lender's field as needed. The terms of the bond were so strict that it was nearly impossible for the Santhal to repay the loan in their lifetime.
• Guerrilla Warfare and Suppression:
  • The Murmu brothers led around 60,000 Santhals in guerrilla warfare against the East India Company. Despite fierce resistance lasting six months, the revolt was crushed in January 1856 with severe casualties and devastation.
    • More than 15,000 Santhals lost their lives, and over 10,000 villages were destroyed.
    • The Hul highlighted early resistance against British colonial rule and remains a symbol of tribal resilience.
• Impact: The uprising led to the enactment of the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act of 1876 (SPT Act) prohibits transfer of Adivasi lands to non-Adivasis, allows land inheritance only within the community and preserves Santhals' right to self-govern their land.

Santhal Tribe

• It is the third largest scheduled tribe in India after the Gonds and Bhils, known for their calm and peaceful nature. They originally led a nomadic life but settled in Chota Nagpur plateau and migrated to Santhal Parganas in Bihar and Odisha. 
  • They are located in Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal, and are involved in cultivation, industrial labour, mining, and quarrying. 
• They follow an autonomous tribal religion and worship nature at sacred groves. Their language is Santhali and they have their own script called ‘OL chiki’ is recognised as one of the scheduled languages in the Eighth Schedule.
• Their artforms like Phuta Katcha pattern saree and dress are popular. They celebrate various festivals and rituals related to agriculture and worship. Santhal houses, known as 'Olah', are easily recognizable due to their large, neat, and attractive appearance, adorned with multi-coloured paintings on the exterior walls.

What are the Other Tribal Revolts in Chota Nagpur Region?

• Munda Rebellion:  The Munda Ulgulan (rebellion) was a significant tribal revolt during Indian Independence, highlighting the tribal people's ability to raise their voice against exploitation. 

  • The Munda tribe in Chota Nagpur, Jharkhand, primarily engaged in agriculture, faced oppression from British colonists, zamindars, and missionaries. Their land was seized, and they were forced to work as labourers. 

  • Birsa Munda spearheaded the movement, striving to reclaim the tribe's lost land and rights.

  • The Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, (CNT Act) enacted by the British in 1908 as a result of the Birsa Movement, allows land transfers within the same caste and certain geographical areas with the approval of the District Collector. 
    • This Act also restricts the sale of Adivasi and Dalit land, while allowing land transfers between Adivasi individuals from the same police station and Dalits in the same district.
• Tana Bhagat Movement: Started in April 1914 under the leadership of Jatra Bhagat, aiming to stop the evil practices in the Oraon community of Chotanagpur  and oppose the exploitation by Zamindars. 
  • The movement promoted non-violence, influenced by Mahatma Gandhi. As a result of the movement, animal sacrifices were stopped and drinking alcohol was prohibited.
• Chuar Uprising: Chuar Uprising took place in the region between Chota Nagpur and the plains of Bengal from 1767 to 1802, led by Durjan Singh. The tribes rebelled and used guerrilla tactics in response to the British taking away their land.
• Tamar Revolt: It was an uprising by the Oraon tribes of Tamar in the Chotanagpur region between 1789 and 1832, led by Bhola Nath Sahay.
  • The tribes revolted against the faulty alignment system implemented by the British government, which had failed to secure the land rights of the tenants, causing unrest among the Tamar tribes in 1789. 

Tribal Revolts in Colonial India

• Tribal revolts in colonial India were diverse and multifaceted, reflecting deep-seated grievances against British colonial policies and their impact on tribal communities. 
• These movements, categorized into mainland and frontier tribal revolts, spanned from the late 18th century to the eve of Indian independence, influencing regional dynamics and challenging British authority.

Aspect	Mainland Tribal Revolts	Frontier Tribal Revolts
Geographical Focus	Central and west-central India.	Northeast region of India
Characteristics	Agrarian and forest-based; focused on land and forest policies.	Political autonomy and cultural preservation; less impacted by land settlement policies.
Causes	Land revenue settlements, Forest policies, Influx of outsiders, and Christian missionaries	Political autonomy, Control over land and forests, and De-sanskritization movements
Goals	Local autonomy, cultural preservation	Political autonomy, independence
Cultural Resistance	Aimed at preserving tribal identities and customs	Resisted cultural influences, particularly Sanskritisation
Impact	Contributed to regional identity and autonomy movements	Focused on preserving indigenous practices and political autonomy
Examples of Movements	Pahariya Rebellion (1778, RajMahal Hills), Chuar Uprising (1776, Midnapore and Bankura), Khond Uprisings (1837-56 and 1914), Koya Revolts (1879-80, Eastern Godavari tract of Andhra Pradesh), and Rampa Revolts (1922-1924, Andhra Pradesh)	Ahom Revolt (1828, Assam), Singphos’ Rebellion (early 1830, Assam), Kukis’ Revolt (1817-19, Manipur), Naga movement (1905-31;Manipur), and Zeliangsong Movement (1920s; Manipur)

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Tribal revolts in colonial India reflected deep-seated grievances against British colonial policies. Discuss this statement with reference to examples from mainland and frontier regions.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q. With reference to the history of India, ‘Ulgulan’ or ‘the Great Tumult’ is led by? (2020)

1. Bakshi Jagabandhu
2. Alluri Sitaramaraju
3. Sidhu & Kanhu Murmu
4. Birsa Munda

Ans: (d)

Q2. After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what were the measures taken by the colonial government? (2018)

1. The territories called 'Santhal Parganas' were created. 
2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 only 

(b) 2 only 

(c) Both 1 and 2 

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Ans: (c)

Q. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for tribal insurrection in India in the 19th century? ( 2011)

(a) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation- of tribal products

(b) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas

(c) Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as middlemen in tribal areas.

(d) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities

Ans: (d)

Issue of Urban Finance and 16th Finance Commission

For Prelims: 74th Amendments of the Constitution, Directive Principles of State Policy, Reserve Bank of India, Geographical Information System, Finance Commission

For Mains: Financial Paucity faced by Urban Local Bodies, Measures for Empowerment of Urban Local Government.

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, developments concerning the 16th Finance Commission (FC) in India highlight critical issues regarding fiscal decentralisation, particularly focusing on urban areas and their financial sustainability within the federal structure.

• The World Bank has estimated that USD 840 billion is needed for basic urban infrastructure in the next decade.

What are the Financial Sustainability Issues with the Urban Areas?

• Urbanisation Challenges: India's urban areas, which contribute 66% of India’s GDP and about 90% of total government revenues face immense infrastructure and financial challenges. 
  • Despite being crucial economic hubs, cities receive inadequate fiscal support with intergovernmental transfers (IGTs) constituting only 0.5% of GDP impacting their ability to provide essential services and maintain infrastructure.
• Financial Devolution Issues: The devolution of funds to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) is significantly lower than other developing nations. 
  • For instance, South Africa allocates 2.6%, Mexico 1.6%, the Philippines 2.5%, and Brazil 5.1% of their GDPs to their cities.
  • This shortfall affects urban productivity and quality of life, exacerbated by the introduction of the Goods and Service Tax (GST), which has reduced ULBs' own tax revenues.
• Draining Resources: An RBI survey of 221 municipal corporations (2020-21) revealed that more than 70% of these corporations saw a decline in revenues while in contrast, their expenditure rose by almost 71.2%.
  • The RBI report also highlights the limited coverage of property tax and its failure in shoring up municipal corporation revenues.
  • As per the OECD, India has the world's lowest property tax collection rate (property tax to GDP ratio).
• Decline in Grants: Experts argue that GST not only ended octroi but also severely impacted the businesses of many small entrepreneurs, resulting in a significant decline in tax revenue for urban local bodies.
  • Previously almost 55% of the total revenue expenditure of urban centres was met by octroi which has now significantly reduced.
• Other Issues:
  • Census Data Concerns: The absence of updated census data (since 2011) poses a challenge in accurately assessing the urban population and its needs. 
    • This outdated data affects evidence-based fiscal devolution planning, crucial for addressing the dynamic urbanisation trends, including migration to Tier-2 and 3 cities.
  • Policy Distortions: Parallel agencies and schemes, such as MP/MLA Local Area Development Funds, undermine the financial autonomy of local governments, distorting the intended federal structure and complicating urban governance and service delivery.
  • Lesser Functional Autonomy: During the pandemic, the leaders at national, state and district level were seen taking a call on disaster mitigation strategies, however, the heads of municipal corporations were not included in this group.
    • The old approach of treating local governments as adjuncts of State governments continues to dominate the policy paradigm.
  • Structural Issues: Some of the urban local governments do not have basic infrastructure and human resources. While in some states regular elections are not conducted for the local bodies. This affects their functioning and delivery of services.

What are the Major Terms of Reference for the 16th Finance Commission?

• About:
  • The Finance Commission in India is a constitutional body established under Article 280 of the Indian Constitution.
    • Its primary function is to recommend the distribution of financial resources between the central government and the state governments.
  • The Fifteenth Finance Commission was constituted in 2017. It made recommendations covering the period of six years commencing on 1st April, 2020 through its Interim and Final Reports.
    • The recommendations of the Fifteenth Finance Commission are valid up to the financial year 2025-26.
• Terms of Reference: 
  • Division of Tax Proceeds: Recommending the distribution of taxes between the Union Government and the States under Chapter I of the Constitution.
    • This includes the allocation of shares among the States from these tax proceeds.
  • Principles for Grants-in-Aid: Establishing the principles governing grants-in-aid to the States from the Consolidated Fund of India.
    • This encompasses determining the amounts to be provided to the States as grants-in-aid, specifically under Article 275 of the Constitution.
  • Enhancing State Funds for Local Bodies: Identifying measures to enhance the Consolidated Fund of a State.
    • This is aimed at supplementing the resources available to Panchayats and Municipalities within the State, based on recommendations made by the State's own Finance Commission.
  • Evaluation of Disaster Management Financing: The Commission may review the current financing structures related to Disaster Management initiatives.
    • This involves examining the funds created under the Disaster Management Act, 2005, and presenting suitable recommendations for improvements or alterations.

Assam Government Makes Appointment to State Finance Commission

• The Government of Assam has constituted the Seventh Assam State Finance Commission with Lieutenant General Rana Pratap Kalita (Retd) as its Chairman and six other members.
• The State Finance Commission (SFC), formed by the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, aims to streamline fiscal relations at the state and sub-state levels in India, with appointments governed by Article 243-I and 243-Y of the Indian Constitution.
  • Article 243 I: Mandates State Governor to constitute a Finance Commission every five years.
  • Article 243Y: Finance Commission constituted under article 243 I shall also review the financial position of the Municipalities and make recommendations to the Governor.

What are the Steps Needed for Better Urban Finance?

• Strengthening Municipal Revenue: All Finance Commissions have recognised the need to augment property tax revenue to improve municipal finances. For example:
  • The 12^th Finance Commission encouraged the use of the Geographical Information System (GIS) and digitisation to improve property tax administration.
  • The 14^th Finance Commission recommended that municipalities be enabled to levy vacant land tax.
• Modernise Tax Administration: Outdated systems lead to inefficiencies and leakages. Local bodies can implement digital platforms for property tax assessment, e-filing, and online payments. 
  • This improves transparency, convenience for citizens, and boosts collection rates. 
• Explore User Charges for Specific Services: Instead of a blanket tax structure, some services can have user charges. This can apply to parking, waste collection for bulk generators, or recreation facilities. 
  • The key is to ensure the fees are fair and reflect the cost of providing the service. Cities like Bengaluru have successfully implemented user charges for solid waste management.
• Strategic Property Management: Local bodies often hold underutilised properties. These can be monetised through public-private partnerships (PPP) for developing commercial spaces, markets, or parking lots. 
  • This generates rental income and economic activity within the local body's jurisdiction. The World Bank recommends PPPs as a tool for local governments to access financing and expertise for infrastructure development.
• Promote Local Businesses and Economic Development: A thriving local economy translates to higher tax revenue for local bodies. Initiatives can include streamlining business licenses, offering tax breaks for startups, or creating innovation hubs. 
  • The city of Austin, Texas, in the US, is known for its supportive environment for entrepreneurs, leading to a booming local economy .
• Explore Social Stock Exchange (SSE): These exchanges allow social enterprises, which focus on social impact alongside profit generation, to raise capital. Local bodies can explore the feasibility of creating an SSE or partnering with an existing one. 
  • This could attract investment towards initiatives that address local social needs while generating revenue for the local body.
• Implement Value Capture Mechanisms: This involves capturing a portion of the increased value of private properties resulting from public infrastructure projects. 
  • Hong Kong is a prime example of a city that effectively uses land value capture for infrastructure projects.

Conclusion

The ongoing work of the 16^th Finance Commission is pivotal in addressing these challenges by revisiting fiscal devolution principles, updating methodologies based on current urbanisation dynamics, and recommending substantial increases in IGTs to urban areas. 

• The implications of these recommendations will be far-reaching, impacting India's economic growth trajectory, social equity goals, and environmental sustainability efforts in its urban centers. 
• Effective implementation will require concerted efforts from Union and State governments to align policies and ensure sustainable urban development in the country.

Read more: 16^th FC

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Can enhanced devolution of funds by the 16th Finance Commission effectively address the systemic financial challenges faced by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India. Analyse.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. Consider the following: (2023)

1. Demographic performance
2. Forest and ecology
3. Governance reforms
4. Stable government
5. Tax and fiscal efforts

For the horizontal tax devolution, the Fifteenth Finance Commission used how many of the above as criteria other than population area and income distance?

(a) Only two

(b) Only three

(c) Only four

(d) All five

Ans: (b)

Q. According to the Constitution of India, it is the duty of the President of India to cause to be laid before the Parliament which of the following? (2012)

1. The Recommendations of the Union Finance Commission
2. The Report of the Public Accounts Committee
3. The Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General
4. The Report of the National Commission for Scheduled Castes

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(c) 1, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (c)

Q. With reference to the Finance Commission of India, which of the following statements is correct? (2011)

(a) It encourages the inflow of foreign capital for infrastructure development

(b) It facilitates the proper distribution of finances among the Public Sector Undertakings

(c) It ensures transparency in financial administration

(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given above are correct in this context

Ans: (d)

Development of Polio Vaccines

For Prelims: Polio, Vaccine Derived Poliovirus, WHO, Universal Immunization Programme

For Mains: Poliovirus, Polio Immunization and  Eradication Programmes in India and the world, WHO Programmes on Polio.

Source: TH

Why in News?

The wild poliovirus is beginning to reappear in big cities in Afghanistan and Pakistan, due to vaccine hesitancy, misinformation, conflict, poverty, and limited access to these isolated regions.

• As a result, the World Health Organization's Global Polio Eradication Initiative is set to miss its deadline of eradicating polio by the end of 2026.
• The two vaccines namely Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) and Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) have helped in nearly eradicating polio from the world.

What is the History of Development of Polio Vaccines?

• The development of the 2 polio vaccines - the Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) by Jonas Salk and the Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) by Albert Sabin was a result of several key breakthroughs:
  • Culturing the Poliovirus in Non-Nerve Cells:

    • In 1948, microbiologists discovered a method to grow the poliovirus in human muscle and skin cells, rather than just in nerve cells as was previously believed.

    • This allowed for the mass production of the poliovirus, which was crucial for vaccine research and development.
  • Development of the Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV):

    • Jonas Salk developed the first successful polio vaccine by growing the poliovirus, inactivating it and injecting it into test subjects.

    • The IPV generated systemic immunity, as it was introduced into the muscle.

  • Development of the Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV):

    • Albert Sabin developed the OPV, which contained live, weakened poliovirus strains that were administered orally.

    • The OPV induced a powerful protective mucosal immune response in the gut, where the virus begin its infection.

Note

• The immune system has 2 main parts: the systemic (including the blood, brain, and other organ systems) and the mucosal (including the inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems, urogenital tract, and eyes). 
  • Mucosal components are lined with mucous membranes for additional protection due to frequent contact with the external environment.

What are Advantages and Disadvantages of IPV and OPV?

Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV)

Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)

Advantages: IPV is made from killed or inactivated poliovirus, which means it cannot cause the disease. IPV is safe for use in immunocompromised individuals, as it does not contain live virus. IPV provides long-lasting immunity and does not require multiple doses to maintain protection. Disadvantages: IPV is more expensive to produce and administer compared to OPV. IPV requires multiple doses (usually a series of 2-4 shots) to achieve full immunity. IPV does not provide the same level of mucosal immunity as OPV, which can limit its ability to interrupt the transmission of the virus.

Advantages: OPV is less expensive to produce and administer compared to IPV. OPV only requires a single or a few doses to provide effective immunity. OPV can provide better mucosal immunity, which helps to interrupt the transmission of the virus. Disadvantages: OPV contains live, weakened poliovirus, which in rare cases can mutate and cause vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) outbreaks. OPV is not recommended for use in immunocompromised individuals, as the live virus can pose a risk. OPV-derived immunity may not be as long-lasting as IPV-derived immunity.

Note:

The world has utilised both vaccines in the fight against polio.

• Some countries, such as Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland, relied exclusively on the IPV.
• Most countries, however, used a combination of the two vaccines.
  • These countries preferred the OPV for its superior protection and ease of administration, and then switched to the IPV when the number of natural polio cases drops to zero.

What are the Key Facts about Polio?

• Polio (poliomyelitis) is a highly infectious viral disease that enters the body through the mouth, multiplying in the intestine before invading the nervous system.
• It mainly affects children under 5 years of age.

  • The incubation period for poliovirus is usually 7–10 days, but it can range from 4–35 days.

• Initial symptoms of poliovirus infection include fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness in the neck, and pain in the limbs.
  • Up to 90% of those infected with poliovirus experience no or mild symptoms, often going unrecognised.
• One in 200 infections leads to permanent paralysis of the legs, which can occur within a few hours of infection.
  • 5-10% of those paralyzed by polio virus die when their breathing muscles become immobilised.
• The virus is shed by infected people, usually children, through faeces, and can spread quickly in areas with poor hygiene and sanitation systems.
• Cases due to wild poliovirus have decreased by over 99% since 1988, from an estimated 350 000 cases in more than 125 endemic countries, to just 2 endemic countries Afghanistan and Pakistan (as of October 2023).
• India received polio-free certification by the WHO in 2014, after three years of zero cases.

What are the Measures Taken to Eradicate Polio?

• Global:

  • Global Polio Eradication Initiative: It was launched in 1988 by  national governments and spearheaded by the WHO, Rotary International, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).

  • World Polio Day: It is observed every year on 24^th October in order to call on countries to stay vigilant in their fight against the disease

• India:

  • Pulse Polio Programme:

  • Intensified Mission Indradhanush 2.0

  • Universal Immunization Programme (UIP): It was launched in 1985 with the modification to ‘Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI). The objectives of the Programme include:

    • Rapidly increasing immunisation coverage, Improving the quality of services, Establishing a reliable cold chain system to the health facility level, Introducing a district-wise system for monitoring of performance, Achieving self-sufficiency in vaccine production.

Read more: Guinea Worm Disease 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question

Q. ‘Mission Indradhanush’ launched by the Government of India pertains to (2016)

(a) immunisation of children and pregnant women
(b) construction of smart cities across the country
(c) India’s own search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
(d) New Educational Policy

Ans: (a)

Q. Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’? (2017)

1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers.
2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women.
3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice.
4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 3 and 4 only

Ans: (a)

Global INDIAai Summit

For Prelims: Global INDIAai Summit, Bharat Mandapam, International Monetary Fund, Artificial Intelligence Preparedness Index, INDIAai Mission, Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence

For Mains:  AI ecosystem in India,  Impact of AI on Job markets, INDIAai Mission

Source: PIB

Why in News? 

The Global INDIAai Summit, held at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi, has concluded successfully. This landmark event brought together experts, policymakers, and enthusiasts to discuss the future of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in India and globally. 

• In another development, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has launched an Artificial Intelligence Preparedness Index (AIPI) Dashboard, tracking the AI readiness of 174 economies globally.

What are the Key Highlights and Outcomes of the Summit?

• Global AI Discourse: India set the global discourse by emphasising the government's intent to make AI accessible to all, regardless of socio-economic background.
  • Discussions highlighted India's unique needs in shaping its AI discourse, focusing on meeting domestic demands while aiming for global AI leadership.
  • The summit provided a platform for Global South countries to express their AI-related concerns and aspirations, with many acknowledging India's role in bridging the gap with the Global North.
• INDIAai Mission Focus: The summit demonstrated India's commitment to building a robust and inclusive AI ecosystem through the INDIAai Mission.
  • Sessions focused on the mission's core areas, including compute capacity, foundational models, datasets, application development, future skills, startup financing, and safe AI.
  • Discussions covered various implementation aspects, such as developing multi-Large Language Models(LLM) models to meet India's diverse needs, platformization and standardisation of AI-ready data, and creating a partner ecosystem with a multi-stakeholder approach.
• Global Partnerships: 
  • CAIGP: The Collaborative AI on Global Partnership (CAIGP) brought together Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI) members, AI experts to identify mechanisms to overcome the global AI divide.
    • GPAI is a multi-stakeholder initiative with 29 member countries including India, which aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice on AI by supporting cutting-edge research and applied activities on AI-related priorities. 
    • India is the lead chair of GPAI in 2024. As GPAI's Lead Chair, India is convening global AI experts to discuss key issues and promote trustworthy AI.
  • GPAI Consensus: Members reached a consensus on the future vision of GPAI, emphasising the transformative potential of AI, acknowledging risks, and committing to human-centric AI development.
  • OECD-GPAI Partnership: A new integrated partnership on AI was announced between the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and GPAI in New Delhi, strengthening international cooperation. It has significant implications, especially for India and other non-OECD member countries.
    • India strategically secured GPAI's independent identity alongside OECD members, maintaining its relevance in global AI governance discussions. 
    • However, the trade-offs included the secretariat remaining with the OECD despite India's push for independence, and non-OECD GPAI members participating equally but under OECD's administrative oversight.
• Startup Ecosystem Support: Rs. 2,000 crore from the INDIAai Mission's Rs 10,372 crore outlay was earmarked to support Indian startups developing indigenous AI-based solutions.
  • Plans were discussed to provide subsidised access to GPU infrastructure for startups, addressing the critical need for compute power in AI development.
  • The summit highlighted strategies to resolve key issues faced by AI startups, including access to datasets, skill development, and fostering innovation.
• AI Education: Stressed the need for curated, age-appropriate AI learning environments to foster widespread AI literacy.
• Sector-Specific Insights: The summit explored AI applications in India's AgriStack, data-driven credit disbursement to farmers, and the use of AI for timely agricultural information collection and decision-making.

  • Discussions covered legal frameworks and dataset platforms in India, emphasising the importance of data management in governance. The integration of AI in government services was also addressed, focusing on improving efficiency and citizen services.

• Ethical and Human-Centric AI: The summit reaffirmed the collective commitment to fostering trustworthy and human-centric AI development.

  • Participants recognized the emerging risks and challenges posed by AI systems, emphasising the need for responsible development. The summit recalled commitments to the OECD Recommendation on AI and the UNESCO Recommendation on the Ethics of AI.

    • UNESCO adopted the Recommendation on the Ethics of AI with a focus on protecting human rights and dignity. 
      • The recommendation emphasises transparency, fairness, and human oversight of AI systems. It also includes Policy Action Areas for policymakers to implement the core values and principles in areas such as data governance, environment, gender, education, research, health, and social wellbeing.

What is the Artificial Intelligence Preparedness Index (AIPI)?

• AIPI evaluates countries based on their digital infrastructure, human capital, labour policies, innovation, integration, and regulation.
  • Countries with advanced digital infrastructure tend to score higher on the Index. Availability of skilled workforce and educational systems supporting AI skills are crucial factors.
• The AIPI Dashboard categorises countries into Advanced Economy (AE), Emerging Market Economy (EM), and Low-Income Country (LIC).
  • Singapore (0.80), Denmark (0.78), and the United States (0.77) are among the highest-rated AEs. India is ranked 72^nd with a rating of 0.49, categorized as an EM.
  • India's performance is relatively strong among emerging market economies but lags behind some of its regional peers like China (0.63) at 31st.

                     

International Monetary Fund

• The IMF, headquartered in Washington, DC, is an organisation of 190 member countries, including India as a founding member, with representation based on financial importance.
• Its objectives include fostering global monetary cooperation, securing financial stability, promoting international trade, and reducing poverty. 
• The IMF's history dates back to the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, where it was conceived to avoid economic crises. 
• Reports: Global Financial Stability Report,  and World Economic Outlook.

Read more: Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI) Summit

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the importance of global partnerships, such as the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence, in overcoming the global AI divide. What role does India play in these partnerships?

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (2020)

1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
3. Disease diagnosis
4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Ans: (b)

Q. The terms ‘WannaCry, Petya and EternalBlue’ sometimes mentioned in the news recently are related to (2018)

(a) Exoplanets
(b) Cryptocurrency
(c) Cyber attacks
(d) Mini satellites

Ans: (c)

---

Mains

Q. What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the development of IT industries in major cities of India? (2022)

Q. “The emergence ofthe Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (2020)

New Study on Spiral Galaxies

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, a new study has shown that there were more spiral galaxies in the early universe than astronomers had previously anticipated

What are the Key Highlights of the Research on Spiral Galaxies?

• Existing Theory: In astronomy, it's believed that as the universe cooled from a hot, dense state, it contained a lot of hot gas. This gas formed clumps that eventually came together to form galaxies. 
  • These early galaxies were irregular in shape and didn't have flat disks like we see in spiral galaxies today. 
  • Over billions of years, as these galaxies continued to cool down, they developed thick, hot disks that later flattened out into the spiral arms humans recognise now.
• Unexpected Early Formation: Contrary to the above theory, the new study suggests that spiral galaxies may have formed much earlier, around the same time as other types of galaxies were evolving.
  • The study used data from NASA's James Webb Space Telescope to analyse 873 galaxies, identifying at least 216 as spiral galaxies.
  • The research found that between 3 billion and 7 billion years after the Big Bang, the proportion of galaxies with spiral shapes increased significantly, from about 8% to 48%.
• Implications for Star Formation: The study's results could impact current understanding of star formation rates and the conditions necessary for earth-like planets to form within spiral galaxies. 
  • The presence of heavy elements in spiral arms, derived from supernovae, is crucial for planet formation.

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

• JWST, successor of  Hubble Space Telescope is a large, infrared telescope designed to observe the most distant objects in the universe.
  • It is a collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

What are the Various Types of Galaxies?

Type	Description	Examples
Spiral Galaxies	Flattened disk with spiral arms (regions of active star formation), central bulge. Can be barred or unbarred.	Milky Way, Andromeda Galaxy
Elliptical Galaxies	Smooth, oval or round shape, little gas and dust, mostly old stars.	Messier 87
Lenticular Galaxies	Intermediate between spiral and elliptical, have a disk but no arms.	Sombrero Galaxy
Irregular Galaxies	No regular shape, can be dwarf or large.	Large Magellanic Cloud
Active Galaxies	Emit 100x more light from the center than stars, powered by supermassive black hole.	Various subtypes
Seyfert Galaxies	Most common active galaxy, emit infrared and X-rays.	Type I & II Seyfert galaxies
Quasars	Most luminous active galaxy, emit light across spectrum and powerful jets.	Markarian 231
Blazars	Active galaxies with jets pointed at Earth, appear very bright.	TXS 0506+056

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q. Consider the following phenomena: (2018)

1. Light is affected by gravity.
2. The Universe is constantly expanding.
3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?

(a) 1 and 2 only 

(b) 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only 

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (d)

Q. Consider the following phenomena: (2013)

1. Size of the sun at dusk
2. Colour of the sun at dawn
3. Moon being visible at dawn
4. Twinkle of stars in the sky
5. Polestar being visible in the sky

Which of the above are optical illusions?

(a) 1, 2 and 3 

(b) 3, 4 and 5

(c) 1, 2 and 4 

(d) 2, 3 and 5

Ans: (c)

Pride Month

Source: IE

Why in News?

Pride Month, celebrated every June, is a time of reflection, celebration, and advocacy for the LGBTQ+ community. Its origins trace back to the Stonewall Uprising of 1969. 

• Over the decades, Pride Month has evolved from a single day of remembrance to a month-long celebration recognised globally.

Why is Pride Month Celebrated in June?

• Pride Month commemorates the Stonewall Uprising of 1969(New York), a pivotal event in the LGBTQ+ rights movement. 
• In 1999, President Bill Clinton declared June as “Gay and Lesbian Pride Month.” Subsequent presidents, including Barack Obama and Joe Biden, have continued this tradition, recognising June as LGBTQ Pride Month.

What were the Stonewall Riots?

• Riots: In the 1960s, homosexuality was illegal and solicitation was a punishable offence in the US. LGBTQ people sought acceptance and community in places like the Stonewall Inn, a refuge for the LGBTQ community in Greenwich Village, New York.
  • On 28^th June 1969, New York police raided the Stonewall Inn for selling alcohol without a licence, sparking rage among the LGBTQ community and leading to six days of riots. 
  • The riots are seen as a turning point in the LGBTQ community's struggle for rights and recognition.
  • Marsha P. Johnson, a transgender sex worker, played a key role in the riots and is now seen as a significant figure in the LGBTQ community. 
• Post Riots: After Stonewall, activists organised a march to commemorate its anniversary with the theme "gay pride" to celebrate the community's sense of pride and unity in their sexual and gender identities. 
  • The celebration of Pride expanded to a month-long event and gained official recognition, becoming a call for visibility and unity within the LGBTQ community. 
  • The celebration of Pride in America was adopted worldwide, with regional variations to make the movement more inclusive.
• Impact of the Riots: The riots at Stonewall were a movement against police brutality and discrimination faced by queer people for decades. The riots gave public visibility to non-conventional gender identities and sexual orientations, and Pride Month now represents fearless identity and proud unity.

LGBTQIA+ Rights in the United States 

• The US Supreme Court ruled that all states allow same-sex marriages and recognize those performed out of state.
• There is no federal law specifically prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. 
  • However, the US Supreme Court's ruling implies that discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity is a form of sex discrimination, which is prohibited under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

LGBTQIA+ Rights in India 

• In 1994, voting rights were legally granted to individuals identifying as a third sex.
• In 2014, the Supreme Court of India ruled that transgender people should be treated as a third gender category.
• In 2017, the LGBTQIA+ community in India was given the freedom to express their sexual orientation, protected by the Right to Privacy.
• The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 to provide for the protection of rights and welfare of transgender people.
• Same-sex marriage is not expressly recognised as a fundamental or constitutional right under the Indian Constitution, but it provides some limited recognition to cohabiting same-sex couples. 
  • The SC has held that the right to marry a person of one's choice is integral to Article 21 of the Constitution, and members of the LGBTQIA+ community are entitled to the full range of constitutional rights, including equal protection under the law.

Sampoornata Abhiyan

Source: PIB

NITI Aayog has launched a 3-month 'Sampoornata Abhiyan' campaign from 4th-30th September 2024.

• It aims to achieve saturation in 6 identified indicators in Aspirational Districts and 6 indicators in Aspirational Blocks.
• Aspirational Districts/Blocks are those districts/blocks in India, that are affected by poor socio-economic indicators. 

Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP) and Aspirational Blocks Programme (ABP)

Programme	Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP)	Aspirational Blocks Programme (ABP)
Launched	2018	2023
Aim	To quickly and effectively transform 112 districts across the country	For saturation of essential government services in 500 Blocks (329 Districts) across the country
Themes	Health & Nutrition Education Agriculture & Water Resources Financial Inclusion & Skill Development Infrastructure	Health & Nutrition Education Agriculture and Allied Services Basic Infrastructure Social Development
Number of Indicators	81	40

Read more: Aspirational Blocks Programme.

Comprehensive Immunisation Schedule for Women

Source: TH

The Federation of Obstetric and Gynaecological Societies of India (FOGSI) has introduced a comprehensive immunisation schedule for women aimed at increasing awareness and uptake of adult vaccines across India. This initiative aims to improve women's health quality, recognizing that women spend 25% more time in poor health compared to men.

• This initiative marks a significant step in addressing vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) among women. 
  • VPDs are caused by bacteria or viruses and can be prevented with vaccines. They can result in long-term illness, hospitalisation, and death. Examples of VPDs include chickenpox, diphtheria, and poliovirus infection.
• The Government of India has initiated two major efforts to increase immunisation coverage in the country. 
  • The Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) provides free immunisation immunisation against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases, including 9 nationally targeted diseases such as Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, Rubella, severe Childhood Tuberculosis, Hepatitis B, and Meningitis & Pneumonia caused by Haemophilus influenzae type B.
  • Additionally, Mission Indradhanush was launched in 2014 to reach children who missed their vaccinations under the UIP.  It has reached over 2.53 crore children and 68 lakh pregnant women with life-saving vaccines through its four phases.
• FOGSI supports Obstetrics and Gynecology practitioners in India by promoting healthcare services, reproductive rights, and reducing maternal mortality.

Read more: WHO Report on Global Immunisation, Exploring the Durability of Modern Vaccines

248th Independence Day of US

Source: IE

Recently, the US has celebrated its 248th anniversary of its Independence Day on the 4^th July 2024.

• The US was declared as a sovereign nation after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence by the Second Continental Congress on 4th July 1776.
  • This day marked the separation of British colonies from Great Britain.
• The struggle for independence began in 1775 when the 13 American colonies sought freedom from British rule under King George III. 
  • This conflict sparked the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), fueled by the colonies desire for self-governance and freedom from oppressive British policies.
• The American colonies voted to declare independence on 2nd July 1776, two days before the Declaration was approved and 12 of the 13 colonies officially decided to sever political ties with Great Britain.
• Causes of the American Revolutionary War included British trade restrictions hindering economic development, the ban on westward expansion, influence of Enlightenment thinkers, British attempts to tax the colonies, lack of representation in British Parliament, and harsh measures like the Coercive Acts intensifying colonial discontent.

Read more: 244th Independence Day of USA 

Gharials

Source: TH

A lone female gharial in Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve, Assam has sparked hopes for the species' revival in the Brahmaputra River System (BRS).

• The gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is distinct from other crocodilians due to its long snout. It is thought to have disappeared from the BRS in the 1950s, with some reported sightings in the 1990s.
• According to the Wildlife Institute of India, gharials were widely distributed in the Brahmaputra, Ganga, Indus, and the Mahanadi-Brahmani-Baitarani river systems of India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan. 
  • Currently, their major populations occur in three tributaries of the Ganga (the Chambal and Girwa in India, and the Rapti-Narayani river in Nepal).
• According to the IUCN’s Red List the Gharial is Critically Endangered due to construction projects and water extraction impacting its river ecosystems.

              

Read more: Gharials, Brahmaputra River System (BRS)