Champakam Dorairajan Case and Evolution of FRs and DPSPs

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

Champakam Dorairajan Case, 1951 presented the first instance of conflict between the Fundamental Rights (FRs) and Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs).  

What is Champakam Dorairajan Case, 1951? 

• Background of the Case: In 1948, the Madras government introduced the Communal General Order (GO), which reserved seats in educational institutions based on caste and religion. 
  • The government cited Article 46, which mandates promoting the education and economy of SCs, STs, and weaker sections. 
  • Champakam Dorairajan, a woman from Madras, challenged the order in the Madras High Court (HC), citing a violation of her right to equality (Article 14).  
• Madras High Court Verdict, 1950: The Madras HC struck down the Communal GO as unconstitutional for using caste and religion as basis of classification, but the Madras government appealed to the Supreme Court (SC). 
• Supreme Court Verdict, 1951: A five-judge Supreme Court bench upheld the Madras HC ruling, declaring the Communal GO unconstitutional.  
  • The judgment stated that it violated fundamental rights under Article 14 (Right to Equality) and Article 15(1) (Prohibition of Discrimination on Grounds of Religion, Race, Caste, Sex, or Place of Birth).  
  • The SC ruled that FRs prevail over DPSPs and established that Parliament can amend FRs through constitutional amendments. 
• Impact of the SC Ruling: The ruling struck down caste-based reservations in education, as the Constitution then allowed reservations only in public jobs (Article 16(4)).  
  • This led to the 1st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1951 to restore education reservations. 
• 1^st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1951: The government amended Article 15 by introducing Article 15(4), which allowed the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes (SEBCs), Scheduled Castes(SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). 
  • This amendment provided the constitutional basis for reservations in educational institutions. 

What Provisions were Amended by the 1st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1951? 

• Fundamental Rights: 
  • Article 15(4): Allowed special provisions for SEBCs, SCs, and STs. 
  • Article 19: Expanded reasonable restrictions on free speech (Article 19(2)), including security of the state, public order, and incitement to offenses. 
    • The State can set professional qualifications and regulate or nationalize trade, business, or industry through State-owned corporations. 
• Parliament and State Legislatures:  
  • Article 85 & 174: Ensured that the gap between two parliamentary or state legislative sessions does not exceed six months. 
  • Article 87 and 176: The President/Governor’s address to the legislature was now required only once after each general election and at the beginning of the first session each year. 
• Land Reforms:  
  • Article 31A: Secured laws related to the acquisition of estates and property rights from being challenged under fundamental rights. 
  • Article 31B: Created the Ninth Schedule, protecting listed laws from judicial review regarding fundamental rights. 
• SCs and STs: The President was given authority to specify SCs (Articles 341) and STs (Articles 342) for each State separately. 

What are Other Judgements on Conflict Between FRs and DPSPs 

• Golaknath Case, 1967: The SC overturned its Champakam Dorairajan ruling, declaring that Parliament cannot amend FRs, ensuring their absolute protection. 
• Kesavananda Bharati Case, 1973:  
  • Background: 25th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971 introduced Article 31C, which contained two key provisions: 
    • Laws for implementing DPSPs on resource distribution (Article 39(b) & (c)) were shielded from judicial review, even if they violated FRs provided under Article 14, 19, or 31.  
    • Any law designed to implement the Article 39(b) & (c) was protected from judicial review, even if it did not fully achieve its goals. 
  • Verdict: The SC upheld the first provision, ensuring laws implementing Article 39(b) and (c) remained valid even if they conflicted with Fundamental Rights. 
    • It struck down Article 31 C's second provision barring judicial review. 
    • The SC also introduced the concept of Basic Structure that states that certain fundamental principles of the Constitution cannot be altered or destroyed through amendments. E.g., Judicial review, limited amending power etc. 
• Minerva Mills Case, 1980:  
  • Background: 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 extended Article 31C’s protection to all DPSPs, prioritizing them over FRs under Articles 14, 19, and 31. 
  • Verdict: The SC struck down the 42nd Amendment’s expansion of Article 31C, ruling that there is a harmonious construction between FRs and DPSPs and DPSPs cannot override FRs, preserving the Constitution’s balance. 
• Current Status: FRs take precedence over DPSPs, but Parliament can amend Articles 14 and 19 to implement Articles 39(b) and 39(c). 

Conclusion 

The Champakam Dorairajan case established the supremacy of Fundamental Rights over Directive Principles, influencing constitutional amendments and judicial interpretations. Subsequent rulings, including Golaknath, Kesavananda Bharati, and Minerva Mills, shaped the balance between FRs and DPSPs, ensuring social justice while upholding individual liberties and judicial review as constitutional safeguards 

Drishti Mains Question: Analyze the Supreme Court’s evolving stance on the conflict between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, citing key cases

Rise of India’s Private Space Industry

Source: BS 

Why in News?  

The rise of private participation in India’s space sector, driven by the Space Sector Reforms of 2020, has accelerated innovation and investment by opening the industry to private players. 

• Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) continued achievements, along with India's space tech startups, are driving rapid advancements in space technology, exploration, and commercialization. 

How Has India’s Private Space Industry Grown? 

• Private Participation: Over 200 space startups are now active in India, leveraging ISRO’s facilities (ISRO’s testing, launch, and ground station facilities). 
  • Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe) has provided regulatory and financial support (with a Rs. 1,000 crore Venture Capital (VC) Fund) to accelerate the growth of India's space sector.  
  • Antrix Corporation, ISRO’s commercial arm, has played a key role in facilitating satellite launches and technology transfers to private players. 
  • The POEM (PSLV Orbital Experimental Module) program has carried an increasing number of startup payloads, from 6 in 2022 to 24 in 2024. 
• Private Investment: Private funding is gaining momentum and drives the space economy.  
  • MountTech Growth Fund – Kavachh (MGF-Kavachh) is boosting domestic investments through venture capital funding, with startups securing Rs 2,500 crore in the past 3 years. 
    • MGF-Kavachh is a Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) registered Alternative Investment Fund (AIF) under Category II. 
• Indian Startups Advancements: GalaxEye achieved the world’s first fusion of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) with optical imagery, enabling rapid data compression. 
  • Pixxel is developing world’s most advanced hyperspectral satellite constellations (Firefly), while InspeCity (IIT Bombay) is working on in-orbit docking for satellite repair and refueling.  
    • Skyroot and Agnikul are pioneering private launch vehicles for cost-effective satellite deployment. 

What are the Challenges Facing India’s Space Industry? 

• Funding and Investment Gaps: While venture capital interest is rising, early-stage funding remains limited, making it difficult for startups to scale.  
• Talent Shortage: The lack of specialized educational institutions and courses in space technology hinders talent development. 
  • Only one Indian Institute of Space Technology (IIST) exists, creating a need for more institutions and industry-academia collaborations. 
• Global Competition: Nations like the US, China, and Russia have advanced space programs, including reusable spacecraft, space tourism, and extensive satellite constellations. 
  • India is catching up, but longer R&D cycles and limited high-end capabilities pose hurdles. 
• Foreign Launch Vehicles: While India has developed launch capabilities, many startups still rely on foreign rockets like SpaceX's Falcon-9 due to cost and schedule constraints. 
  • Developing more efficient and reusable launch vehicles is essential for reducing dependence. 

Way Forward 

• Boosting R&D and Infrastructure: Expand domestic manufacturing of satellite components through a Production Linked Incentive Scheme for space-grade components. 
  • Establish more IISTs and space-focused courses in IITs to build a skilled workforce. 
  • Develop a dedicated space industrial corridor like Space Coast, Florida to create a robust ecosystem for satellite and launch vehicle manufacturing. 
• Global Collaboration: Strengthen bilateral agreements with leading space agencies (NASA, ESA, Roscosmos). 
  • Promote rideshare missions for startups to make satellite launches more affordable. 
• Technology Transfer:  Expand ISRO’s technology transfer initiatives to enable startups to commercialize homegrown innovations. 
  • Leverage space startups to develop applications for industries such as agriculture, disaster management, and urban planning, driving commercial growth.

Drishti Mains Question:  Discuss the significance of the Space Sector Reforms of 2020 in fostering private participation in India's space industry.

Issue of Pradhan Pati in Panchayats

Source: IE 

Why in News?  

A panel constituted by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj in 2023 has submitted its report, Transforming Women’s Representation and Roles in Panchayati Raj Systems and Institutions: Eliminating Efforts for Proxy Participation, recommending “exemplary penalties” to curb the practice of ‘Pradhan Pati’.  

• The report suggests policy reforms, training, and technology-driven solutions to empower women leaders. 

What are the Key Reforms Suggested by the Committee?  

• Strict Penalties for Proxy Leadership: Enforcement of ‘exemplary penalties’ for proven cases of male relatives acting as proxies for elected women representatives in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). 
• Structural and Policy Reforms: The committee recommends gender-exclusive quotas in panchayat subject and ward-level committees (like Kerala’s model), annual ‘Anti-Pradhan Pati’ awards to recognize efforts against proxy leadership, 
  • Proposes appointment of women’s ombudspersons to handle related complaints. It also suggests public swearing-in ceremonies in Gram Sabhas to reinforce women pradhans’ authority. 
  • Suggests creation of a federation of women panchayat leaders for peer support and collective decision-making. 
• Technological Interventions: The committee proposes Virtual reality (VR) simulation training to enhance governance skills, Artificial intelligence (AI) powered query-driven guidance in vernacular languages for real-time legal and governance support 
  • WhatsApp groups linking Women Elected Representatives (WERs) with officials for issue resolution. 
  • Additionally, the Panchayat Nirnay Portal will enable citizens to track pradhans' participation, ensuring transparency and accountability. 
  • The committee suggests collaborating with prominent educational institutions and international agencies for leadership programs. 

What is the Issue of Pradhan Pati in PRIs? 

• Pradhan Pati: Also known as ‘Sarpanch Pati’ or ‘Mukhiya Pati,’ this practice involves the husbands of elected women panchayat leaders exercising power on their behalf.  
  • As a result, many WERs serve as mere figureheads, undermining their autonomy and leadership. It reinforces patriarchy and weakens the intent of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment. 
• Menace of Pradhan Pati: India has about 2.63 lakh panchayats across three levels (Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, and Zila Parishad). Women make up 46.6% (15.03 lakh) of 32.29 lakh elected panchayat representatives.  
  • However, their effective participation remains low, especially in northern states like UP, Bihar, Haryana, and Rajasthan, where male relatives often control decision-making. 
• Challenges in Addressing Pradhan Pati: Patriarchal norms and bureaucratic neglect undermine women’s authority, often reducing them to figureheads.  
  • Threats, violence, and social pressure discourage women from actively participating in governance.  
  • The committee cautions that strict penalties may push the issue underground instead of addressing root causes like patriarchy. 

Read more: SC Calls for Reform to Empower Women Leaders

Drishti Mains Question: How does the practice of ‘Pradhan Pati’ undermine the objectives of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment? Suggest measures to strengthen women’s leadership in PRIs.

Farmers' Earning in Agri Produce: RBI

Source: IE 

Why in News?

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) conducted a pan-India survey on farmers’s share in consumer prices in rabi crops. 

• It covered mandis and villages across 18 states analysing 12 rabi crops and including inputs from farmers, traders and retailers. 

What are the Key Findings of the Survey on Farmers' Earning in Agri Produce? 

• Farmers’ Share in Consumer Prices: Farmers received 40-67% of the final consumer price for major rabi crops surveyed.  
  • Wheat Farmers: Wheat farmers received 67% of the consumer price, the highest among surveyed crops, with 25% selling at MSP for an assured market. 
  • Rice and Other Cereals: Rice farmers’ share in retail prices was 52% in 2024 that remained stable over the years i.e., 45% in 2022, and 49% in 2018. 
  • Pulses and Oilseeds: Lentil (Masoor) farmers received around 66%, while Gram (Chana) farmers received 60% of the consumer price. 
    • Mustard farmers received 52%, slightly lower than the 55% recorded in a 2021 study. 
  • Perishable Crops: Farmers’ share in fruits and vegetables ranged from 40-63%, significantly lower than for cereals and pulses. 
    • The combined share of traders and retailers in consumer prices was more than 50% for most perishable crops (except tomatoes). 
    • Perishable crops (fruits and vegetables) had a lower farmers’ share compared to Non-perishable crops (such as wheat and pulses). 
      • Perishable products have short shelf life, seasonal production, varied quality, special logistics, strict standards, demand fluctuations, climate dependency, and supply chain uncertainties. 
• Digital Transactions: Cash transactions still dominate agriculture, but electronic payments have risen significantly in the 2024 survey compared to 2018 and 2022. 
• Supply Chain Challenges: 
  • An unorganized supply chain with multiple intermediaries limits transparency in product movement, finances, and pricing, reducing farmers’ share of consumer prices. 
  • A lower farmers’ share discourages crop diversification away from cereals. 

Click Here to Read: Middlemen Gain as Farmers Earn Less in Agri Produce: RBI

Drishti Mains Question:  Assess the role of intermediaries in India’s agricultural supply chain and its impact on farmers' earnings.

Ultra-Conserved Elements

Source: TH 

Why in News?  

A study found that Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in the Tra2b (Transformer-2 beta) gene have remained unchanged for 80 million years due to their role in preventing infertility by regulating protein levels. 

What are Key Findings of the Study on Ultra-Conserved Elements? 

• Findings of the Study: Deleting the UCE in mouse testes caused excess Tra2β protein, sperm cell death, and infertility. 
  • A UCE in the Tra2b gene regulates Tra2β protein production by acting as a poison exon.  
    • When Tra2β protein levels are too high, the UCE triggers an extra exon in the gene’s RNA, introducing a stop codon that halts protein synthesis, preventing overproduction. 
  • Mutations disrupting UCE's protein-limiting function cause infertility, preventing inheritance. Thus Natural selection has preserved UCEs across species for millions of years. 
• Ultra-Conserved Elements: UCEs are Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences of at least 200 base-pairs that have remained completely unchanged across multiple species for 80 million years or more. 
  • These sequences are found in humans, mice, rats, chickens, and even fish, indicating their critical biological importance. 
    • Across the human genome (an entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell), there are nearly 500 UCEs. 
  • Characteristics of UCEs: UCEs exhibit nearly identical DNA sequences across diverse species, even those that are evolutionarily distant. 
  • Functions of UCEs: They do not usually code for proteins but are involved in gene regulation. 

National Science Day 2025

Source: IE 

Why in News?  

India celebrates National Science Day (NSD) on 28th February annually to honor Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata (CV) Raman’s discovery of the Raman Effect in 1928.  

• The 2025 theme, “Empowering Indian Youth for Global Leadership in Science and Innovation for Viksit Bharat”, highlights the role of scientific innovation and youth leadership and aligns with the Viksit Bharat 2047 vision. 

What are the Key Facts About CV Raman? 

• Early Life: CV Raman was born on 7th November 1888, in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu. He earned his M.A. in Physics from Presidency College, Madras and contributed significantly to atomic physics and optics.  
  • He founded the Raman Research Institute (1948), Indian Journal of Physics (1926), and Indian Academy of Sciences (1934). 
  • His research spanned optics, light scattering, X-rays, acoustics, and sea colors, leading to the discovery of the Raman Effect. 
• Honors & Recognition: Knighted in 1929 by the British government, CV Raman won the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics for Raman Effect, making him the first Asian to receive a Nobel Prize in science.  
  • He was also honored with the Bharat Ratna in 1954, India’s highest civilian award. 
• Raman Effect: It refers to the phenomenon where incoming excitation light interacts with a sample, undergoes a change in wavelength, and generates scattered light due to interactions with molecular vibrations. This phenomenon is known as Raman scattering. 
  • Applications of Raman Effect: It forms the basis of Raman Spectroscopy (analyzing molecular vibrations), widely used to study material properties.  
    • Its applications expanded after the advent of lasers in the 1960s, aiding chemical analysis by identifying substances without breaking them.  
    • It also helps forensic science detect drugs in sealed evidence bags and enables safe nuclear waste analysis using fiber-optic probes. 

 

Quantum Nature of Gravity

Source: TH 

Why in News?

 

Scientists are conducting experiments with nanocrystals to explore if gravity follows quantum principles.  

• This effort aims to bridge the gap between General Relativity (explains gravity at macroscopic scales) and Quantum Mechanics (governs atomic and subatomic interactions). 
  • Since these theories are fundamentally incompatible, the research contributes to the pursuit of a unified theory of quantum gravity. 

What is the Experiment Proposed to Test the Quantumness of Gravity? 

• About Experiment: Scientists propose an experiment using quantum superposition, where particles exist in multiple states until measured.  
  • Nanocrystals will test if gravity follows quantum mechanics.  
  • A test mass crystal will be placed in superposition (existing in two places at once) while another mass interacts with it via gravity.  
  • After measuring the second crystal, scientists will check if gravity causes the test mass to collapse into a definite state, potentially indicating that gravity follows quantum principles. 
• Significance: 
  • If successful, the experiment may prove that gravity is not just a classical force but also exhibits quantum properties, as current theories suggest that gravity should show quantum effects. 
  • Most quantum gravity tests rely on strong gravity (e.g., black holes), which is impractical to test.  
    • This experiment proposes studying weak gravity near small objects, making quantum gravity testing more feasible. 
• Challenges: 
  • The experiment requires extreme precision since even small disturbances (like air molecules or seismic activity) can affect the results. 
  • Scientists need to create a near-perfect vacuum and measure the results very quickly. 
  • The technology to perform this experiment is still being developed. 

Read More: What are the Key Features of Quantum Mechanics?

What is Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity? 

• Quantum Mechanics: 
  • About: 
    • Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that explains how sub-atomic particles, like electrons and photons, can behave both as particles (small bits of matter) and waves (energy disturbances).  
    • This concept is known as wave-particle duality and is a fundamental principle of quantum physics. 
  • Key Principles: 
    • Wave-particle Duality: Particles can behave both as waves and particles. 
    • Superposition: A particle can exist in multiple states until measured. 
    • Entanglement: Two particles can be correlated in such a way that the state of one instantly affects the other, even across vast distances. 
    • Uncertainty Principle: The position and momentum of a particle cannot both be precisely measured at the same time. 
• General Relativity: 
  • About: It is the modern theory of gravity proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915 as an extension of Newton’s law of universal gravitation. 
    • It describes gravity not as a force, but as the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy. 
  • Key Principles: 
    • Space-time curvature: Massive objects like the Sun bend space-time, causing planets to orbit. 
    • Time Dilation: Time moves slower in stronger gravitational fields (e.g., near black holes). 
    • Equivalence Principle: Acceleration and gravitational forces are indistinguishable in a closed system.

CPI for Agricultural and Rural Labourers

Source: PIB 

The Labour Bureau, Ministry of Labour & Employment has released the All-India Consumer Price Index for Agricultural Labourers (CPI-AL) and Rural Labourers (CPI-RL). 

• The CPI-AL and CPI-RL series is presently compiled monthly for 20 states and at the All-India level. 
• It recorded inflation rates of 4.61% and 4.73% in January 2025 respectively, marking a notable decline, indicating reduced price pressures on essential goods and services in rural India. 
• CPI-AL: It measures changes in cost-of-living for rural agricultural laborers and is used to adjust minimum wages for agricultural workers across different states. 
  • CPI(AL) is a subset of CPI(RL). 
• CPI-RL: It measures the changes in the cost of living for rural laborers. 
  • The base year for both CPI-AL and CPI-RL is 1986-87.  
    • The base year is a reference point for comparing statistical changes over time. E.g., GDP,  inflation etc. 

Read More: Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers

Cape Vultures Spotted in South Africa

Source: DTE 

After 30 years, the Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres) has been sighted in South Africa’s Eastern Cape province near Mountain Zebra National Park. 

• About Cape Vulture: It is exclusive to Southern Africa and found in South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, and Mozambique. 
  • It has creamy-buff plumage with dark flight and tail feathers, honey-colored eyes, a bluish throat, and a black bill. 
  • It feeds only on carrion, lives in groups, and is monogamous i.e., raising one chick per season. 
  • It is listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red list. 
  • Only three species are exclusive to Africa i.e., White-headed Vulture, Hooded Vulture, and Cape Vulture. 
• Global Vulture Distribution: 23 species are found worldwide, divided into: 
  • Old World vultures (16 species, found in Africa, Europe, Asia) 
  • New World vultures (7 species, found in the Americas and Caribbean). 

 

Read More: Vultures at Risk in Protected Areas