IPBES Transformative Change Assessment

For Prelims: IPBES, United Nations, United Nations Environment Programme,  Carbon-neutrality, National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP), Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, National Action Plan on Climate Change. 

For Mains: Biodiversity Conservation, Governance for Sustainability, Public Policies for Environmental Protection 

Source: IPBES 

Why in News?

A report released by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) titled Transformative Change Assessment, stresses the critical role that governance plays in mitigating biodiversity loss.  

• It highlights how effective governance, with its focus on inclusivity and sustainability, is essential for preserving biodiversity and driving long-term, systemic change. 

What are the Key Highlights of the Transformative Change Report? 

• Prevent Ecological Damage: The report highlights the urgent need for fundamental shifts in how societies interact with nature to prevent biodiversity loss, warning that inaction could lead to irreversible ecological damage, including the loss of coral reefs and rainforests. 
• Economic and Employment Opportunities: Immediate action could generate USD 10 trillion in business opportunities and support 395 million jobs globally by 2030, especially in industries that depend heavily on nature. 
• Causes of Biodiversity Loss: The report identifies the root causes as the disconnection between people and nature, domination over nature and others. 
  • Other causes include the concentration of power and wealth, and prioritizing short-term material gains over long-term sustainability. 
• Five Key Strategies for Transformation: 
  • Conserve and Regenerate: Focus on areas of biocultural diversity that combine environmental restoration with cultural values, such as community-driven forest management in Nepal. 
  • Systematic Change in Key Sectors: Address sectors like agriculture, fisheries, and infrastructure that contribute to biodiversity loss through sustainable practices. 
  • Transform Economic Systems: Shift toward nature-positive economies by reforming harmful subsidies and promoting sustainable business models. 
  • Adaptive Governance: Build Adaptive governance systems that integrate diverse actors, including Indigenous communities, and make biodiversity a central concern in policies. 
    • Adaptive governance enables continuous adjustment of strategies based on changing environmental conditions and new information. 
    • This flexibility is crucial for addressing complex biodiversity challenges and remaining responsive to emerging threats. 
  • Shift Views and Values: Promote the recognition of human-nature interconnectedness, with an emphasis on education, experiential activities, and integrating diverse knowledge systems. 

IPBES 

• IPBES, established in 2012, is an independent intergovernmental body with nearly 150 member governments including India.  
  • It provides scientific assessments on biodiversity, ecosystems, and their contributions to people, along with tools and methods for their protection and sustainable use. 
• It is not a United Nations body.  However, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) provides secretariat services to IPBES.  
• Secretariat: Bonn, Germany.

What is Transformative Change and How Can it be Achieved? 

• Transformative Change: It is a fundamental, system-wide reorganization across technological, economic, and social factors, including paradigms, goals, and values, necessary for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and achieving a good quality of life and sustainable development. 
• Steps to Achieve Transformative Change: 
  • Carbon-Neutral Actions: Strive for carbon-neutrality, making it a norm for individuals, businesses, and governments, while supporting legitimate climate-friendly offsets. 
  • Earth-Positive Choices: Make it easy, enjoyable, and affordable for people to contribute positively to the environment by shifting supply chains and influencing policies. 
  • Reforming Subsidies: Redirect subsidies and incentives to support environmental stewardship and facilitate transitions away from resource-extractive industries to sustainable practices. 
  • Precautionary Decision-Making: Implement precautionary, adaptive, inclusive, and cross-sector decision-making, addressing environmental threats proactively, even without definitive proof. 
  • Strengthening Environmental Laws: Advocate for stronger environmental laws, ensuring consistent enforcement, and supporting global initiatives that protect nature and promote sustainable economic activities.

What are India’s Initiatives for Transformative Change?

• National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP). 
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. 
• National Action Plan on Climate Change. 
• Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME). 
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY). 
• Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment). 
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). 
• SDGs for Transformative Change: The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for transformative change focus on sustainable development through inclusive growth, addressing Life Below Water, Climate Action, Clean Energy, Clean Water, Responsible Consumption, and Life on Land.    
  • India's initiatives like the Smart Cities Mission, Green India Mission, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana, and National Clean Energy Fund align with various SDGs.  
  • India has made substantial investments in renewable energy, aiming to generate 500 GW from non-fossil sources by 2030, under the leadership of the International Solar Alliance.

Drishti Mains Question: 

Discuss the concept of transformative change. How can this be implemented to address biodiversity loss and achieve sustainable development?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Prelims

Q1. Which of the following can be threats to the biodiversity of a geographical area? (2012) 

1. Global warming 
2. Fragmentation of habitat 
3. Invasion of alien species 
4. Promotion of vegetarianism 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only 

(b) 2 and 3 only 

(c) 1 and 4 only 

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 

Ans: (a) 

Q2. Biodiversity forms the basis for human existence in the following ways: (2011) 

1. Soil formation 
2. Prevention of soil erosion 
3. Recycling of waste 
4. Pollination of crops 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only 

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only 

(c) 1 and 4 only 

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 

Ans: (d) 

Mains

Q. How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act,2002 helpful in the conservation of flora and fauna? (2018)

Muslim League and Rise of Communal Politics in India

For Prelims: All India Muslim League, Aligarh Movement, Nehru Report, North-West Frontier Province , Communal Award, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Khilafat Movement, Preamble 

For Mains: All India Muslim League in India’s Partition, Evolution of Communal Politics in India,  Secularism and Combating Communalism 

Source: IE 

Why in News?

On 30th December 1906, the All India Muslim League was founded in Dhaka, marking the inception of a political organization that played a pivotal role in India’s Partition.  

• Over the years, the League evolved from a group of elite Muslim men to a mass political party under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, advocating for the creation of Pakistan. 

What was the History and Impact of the All-India Muslim League? 

• Founders: Elite Muslim leaders, including Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Nawab Mohsin Ul-Mulk and Aga Khan. 
  • The formation of the All-India Muslim League was preceded by the Aligarh Movement, which advocated for Muslim education and political awareness, and the Simla Deputation (1906), where Muslim leaders met Lord Minto II (1905-1910) to demand special representation.  
• Initial Objective: To protect the political and religious rights of Muslims and to secure separate representation for them in legislative bodies. 
• Emergence of Jinnah’s Leadership: Muhammad Ali Jinnah transformed the League into a mass political force, especially after the Fourteen Points (1929), which outlined Muslim political demands like federalism, minority safeguards, and autonomy. 
• Key Agreements and Resolutions:  
  • The Lucknow Pact (1916): A rare moment of Congress-Muslim League cooperation. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Muhammad Ali Jinnah signed the pact, agreeing to work together for India’s independence. 
    • Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims, a significant demand of the League. However, this also led to the rise of communal politics in India. 
    • The pact called for increased Indian representation in legislative and executive councils. This was a high point of Hindu-Muslim unity in the freedom struggle. 
  • The Lahore Resolution (1940): By 1940, under Jinnah’s leadership, the League adopted a stance favoring Partition. 
    • At its session in Lahore (1940), the League passed a resolution advocating for “Independent States” for Muslims in the northwestern and eastern regions where they were a majority. 
    • The resolution, later termed the Pakistan Resolution, became the ideological foundation for the creation of Pakistan in 1947. 
• Direct Action Day: Observed on 16th August 1946, Direct Action Day is a communal strike called by the All-India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, to press for the creation of Pakistan. 
  • It led to widespread communal riots, especially in Calcutta, resulting in thousands of deaths and property destruction. The violence deepened the Hindu-Muslim divide and accelerated the demand for partition. 
• Role in Partition: Under Jinnah, the Muslim League led the demand for Pakistan, arguing that Muslims would not be treated fairly in a Hindu-majority India. This effort culminated in the 1947 Partition, creating India and Pakistan. 
• Post-Partition: The League became Pakistan's dominant party but fractured into various factions over time. Its role in India waned, with some remnants forming regional political groups. 

Jinnah's Fourteen Points, 1929 

• Background: 
  • Nehru Report: In 1928, the All Parties Conference was convened to discuss parliamentary reforms proposed by the Simon Commission.  
    • The Nehru Report, led by Motilal Nehru, advocated for Dominion Status for India while rejecting separate electorates and Muslim seat reservations in Bengal and Punjab. 
  • Muslim Response: Muslim leaders criticized the Nehru Report as being against Muslim interests. In March 1929, Muhammad Ali Jinnah presided over a Muslim League session in Delhi, where he presented his Fourteen Points, which became the League’s manifesto and a cornerstone of its political strategy. 
• Jinnah's Fourteen Points:  
  • Federal Constitution: A federal system with residual powers allocated to provinces. 
  • Provincial Autonomy: Complete autonomy for provinces. 
  • Constitutional Amendments: Central amendments to require states' consent. 
  • Muslim Representation in Legislatures: Adequate Muslim representation without undermining majorities. 
  • Representation in Services: Fair representation in government services and self-governing bodies. 
  • Central Legislature: One-third Muslim representation in the central legislature. 
  • Cabinet Representation: One-third Muslim representation in central and provincial cabinets. 
  • Separate Electorates: Continuation of separate electorates. 
  • Minority Safeguards: Bills opposed by three-fourths of a minority group could not pass. 
  • Territorial Redistribution: Territorial changes not to harm Muslim-majority areas like Punjab, Bengal, and NWFP. 
  • Sindh Separation: Separation of Sindh from Bombay. 
  • Constitutional Reforms: Reforms for North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Balochistan to grant Muslims greater political autonomy in these regions. 
  • Religious Freedom: Guaranteed religious freedom for all communities. 
  • Protection of Muslim Rights: Safeguards for religion, culture, education, and language. 

What is Communal Politics? 

• Communalism: It refers to strong attachment to one's own community, often religious, with a focus on unity within the group. 
  • Positive aspects of Communalism include it can promote social and economic upliftment within the community. 
  • Negative aspects of Communalism emphasize the group's superiority, leading to intolerance, division, and conflict with other communities.  
    • It suppresses internal diversity and prioritizes its own interests, fostering societal division. 
• Communal Politics: It refers to the mobilization of a religious community for political power, often based on the belief that religious identities equate to shared economic, political, and social interests . 
• Pre- Independence Period:  
  • British Influence: Communal politics emerged as a tool under British colonial rule for bargaining privileges such as jobs, education, and political positions. 
    • The British employed the “Divide and Rule” policy, fostering divisions between Hindus and Muslims to weaken nationalist unity. 
    • The British supported communal forces through the Communal Award, 1932 which strengthened the Muslim League and deepened its differences with the Congress. 
  • Initial Goals: Early communal politics, as championed by leaders like Syed Ahmad Khan, sought upward mobility for communities like Muslims. 
  • Religious Mobilization: Anti-colonial agitations like the  Akali agitations (1919-1926), the Khilafat Movement (1920-21), contributed to deepening communal divisions. 
  • INC and Communalism: While committed to Hindu-Muslim unity, Indian National Congress(INC) dominance, and its use of Hindu cultural symbols, sometimes alienated Muslims. 
    • Communal tensions escalated with the Partition of Bengal (1905) and the establishment of separate electorates (1909). 
  • Muslim League and  Communalism: The League portrayed Congress as a Hindu-dominated entity, intensifying Muslim fears of marginalization in a unified India. 
  • Rise of Two-Nation Theory: Communal ideologies like Hindutva (Vinayak Damodar Savarkar) and the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan culminated in the Partition of India. 
• Post-Independence Period: 
  • Legitimacy and Openness: Communal politics gained mainstream acceptance, especially with the rise of religious identity-based ideologies in the 1980s. 
    • It began to challenge secularism  and pluralism, advocating for a nation centered around a majority religious identity. 
  • Use of Violence: Riots and pogroms are often planned and orchestrated to achieve electoral and economic objectives. 
  • Social Media: Spread of hate speech, and fake news on social platforms, escalating communal tensions. 
  • Caste and Communal Politics: Intersection of caste and religious identity politics, leading to further divisions. 
  • Judiciary’s Role: Judicial interventions are slow, with selective justice in communal violence cases. 

Note: Religiousness in India has always been rooted in spirituality and personal harmony, guiding social life, whereas communalism largely emerged due to British colonial policies.  

• While religiousness promotes inner peace and social harmony, communalism is often driven by politics, and grievances between communities. 

Why Does Communal Politics Thrive? 

• Economic Underdevelopment: Poverty, unemployment, and lack of infrastructure make communities susceptible to communal mobilization. 
• Political Opportunism: Communal narratives provide shortcuts to power, distracting from governance failures and economic issues. 
  • Political parties, especially those with communal ideologies, often face little repercussions for engaging in divisive rhetoric, as they align with vote-bank politics. 
• Control Over Resources: Communal violence is often used to eliminate business competition or seize properties, especially in economically competitive regions. 
• Polarising Narratives: The rhetoric of blaming one community for economic issues fuels division, especially among marginalized groups.  
  • It shifts focus from poor governance to inter-community rivalry, deepening divisions. 
• Weak Legal Enforcement: Inadequate laws against communal violence encourage those who use communal violence for political advantage. 

Way Forward 

• Secularism: Reinforce the constitutional commitment to secularism, as enshrined in the Preamble of Indian Constitution. 
  • Implement the Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence Bill, 2011 to curb violence and religious vote-bank politics which undermines India's secularism by deepening religious divisions for electoral gain. 
• Fraternity: Embrace India’s diversity, promoting a shared vision of progress, justice, and respect for all communities, in line with the values of fraternity and equality outlined in the Constitution. 
• Economic Equity: Focus on inclusive economic development to address disparities and reduce communal tensions. 
• Electoral Reforms: Enforce harsher penalties under the Representation of People Act, 1951, for candidates and parties involved in communal propaganda through hate speech.  
  • Empower the Election Commission of India (ECI) to more effectively monitor and act against communal rhetoric during elections. 
• Empowering Civil Society and Media:  Empower civil society by promoting grassroots movements and youth-led peace initiatives to foster mutual trust and respect for interfaith harmony.  
  • The media must adopt responsible, fact-based reporting to educate the public on the dangers of communal politics and promote coexistence.

Drishti Mains Question: 

Examine the role of the All India Muslim League in partition of India and its impact on communal politics in India.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year’s Question (PYQs) 

Mains 

Q. Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving suitable illustrations. (2018)

Q. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017)

Q. Is diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalization? Justify your answer. (2020)

Business Ready (B-READY) Report 2024

Source: BS 

Why in News? 

Recently, the World Bank launched the Business Ready (B-READY) report 2024 to replace the Ease of Doing Business report. 

• The Ease of Doing Business report was paused in 2020 due to data manipulation issues and concerns over the integrity of certain rankings, leading to an independent review and methodology changes. 

What is Meant by Business Ready? 

• Benchmarking Tool: B-READY evaluates the global business climate to promote inclusive private sector growth. 
• Ten Core Topics: B-READY is organized around key topics for private sector development, covering the stages of a firm's life cycle, including market entry, operation (or expansion), and closure (or reorganization). 
  • Ten Core topics covers Business Entry, Business Location, Utility Services, Labor, Financial Services, International Trade, Taxation, Dispute Resolution, Market Competition, and Business Insolvency. 
• Pillars of B-READY: For each topic, B-READY considers three pillars. 
  • Pillar I: Regulatory Framework – Focuses on the rules and regulations firms must follow during their life cycle, highlighting those that support clarity, fairness, and business sustainability, and those that hinder entrepreneurship. 
  • Pillar II: Public Services – Covers government-provided services and infrastructure that support regulatory compliance and business activities, with an emphasis on digitalization, interoperability, and transparency. 
  • Pillar III: Operational Efficiency – Measures how easily firms can comply with regulations and utilize public services relevant to their operations.  
• Indicators: B-READY analyzes 1,200 indicators to identify policy reform opportunities, using data from primary sources to highlight key aspects of each topic. 
• Three Themes: B-READY assesses three key themes across 10 topics. 
  • Digital Adoption: Evaluates digital integration by governments and businesses in the business environment. 
  • Environmental Sustainability: Analyzes regulatory provisions affecting business operations with a focus on sustainability. 
  • Gender: Examines the collection of gender-disaggregated data and the implementation of gender-sensitive regulations and programs. 
• Scoring: B-READY generates two sets of scores for each economy. 
  • Topic Scores: Averaged from scores across the three pillars, based on indicators that reflect firm flexibility and social benefits. 
  • Pillar Scores: Averaged from scores across 10 topics, standardised to range from 0 to 100. 
• Data Collection: B-READY collects data through expert questionnaires for regulatory and public service aspects, and through World Bank Enterprise Surveys for operational efficiency, with updates to expert data annually and firm-level data every three years. 
• Global Expansion: Covers 50 economies in 2024, with plans to reach 180 by 2026. 
• Focus on Reform: B-READY shifts focus to inclusivity, sustainability, and efficiency in evaluating business environments. 

Comparison of Ease of Doing Business and the B-READY Index

Aspect	Ease of Doing Business (EoDB)	B-READY Index
Objective	Focused on evaluating the regulatory environment for SMEs.	Holistic evaluation of private sector development, including SMEs, workers, and consumers.
Scope	Primarily regulatory burden.	Covers regulatory burden, quality of regulations, and public services.
Topics Covered	Limited to a few key topics like starting a business, getting credit, and paying taxes.	Comprehensive: Covers 10 topics spanning a firm’s lifecycle, including business entry, utility services, labor, and market competition.
Framework	Focused mainly on ease of doing business for firms.	Includes firm flexibility (ease of business) and social benefits (impact on society).
Data Collection	Relied on expert consultations and case studies.	Combines expert consultations and firm-level surveys for a balanced de jure and de facto perspective.
Indicators	Used around 11 questionnaires covering a limited number of indicators.	Uses 21 questionnaires and nearly 1,200 indicators for detailed insights.
Scoring and Ranking	Produced aggregate rankings and scores, often criticized for oversimplification.	Provides disaggregated scores by topic and pillar, encouraging targeted reforms rather than overall rankings.
Geographic Coverage	Covered the main business city in 191 economies.	Plans to expand to 180 economies by 2026, with a focus on national and local regulations.
Public Services	Limited attention to public services.	Explicitly evaluates public services and their operational efficiency.
Cross-Cutting Themes	Did not include specific themes.	Focuses on digital adoption, environmental sustainability, and gender equality.
Use of Results	Primarily for regulatory benchmarking and reform motivation.	Provides actionable insights for reforms, transparency, and data reproducibility.
Methodology Updates	Static methodology with minor updates over time.	Dynamic methodology that evolves based on feedback and lessons from rollouts.

What are the Global Findings of B-READY Report 2024? 

• Public Services Gap: Economies often enact strong regulations but falter in providing the public services needed for their effective implementation, creating a significant “public services gap.” 
• Inclusivity Across Income Levels: High-performing economies like Rwanda, Georgia, and Colombia prove that robust regulatory frameworks and operational efficiency are achievable across income levels. 
• Digital and Environmental Practices: Economies that integrate digital tools and prioritize green initiatives achieve higher scores, reflecting the importance of modern practices. 
• Balanced Development Needed: Even high-income economies like Estonia and Singapore show scope for improvement in areas like taxation and dispute resolution, emphasizing the universal need for reforms. 

 

India Specific Observations of think tank Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) 

• India did not participate in the 2024 B-READY Report. However, there are some India-specific observations by the think tank GTRI. 
  • Moderate Score in Business Entry: India’s business registration system is time-consuming and lacks complete digital integration.  
    • Countries like Singapore achieve one-day online registration with minimal costs, setting a global benchmark. 
  • Challenges in Labor Regulations: Despite introducing four labor codes, India faces slow and uneven implementation across states, affecting labor market flexibility and compliance ease. 
  • Trade Inefficiencies: India’s customs processes are marred by delays, inconsistent enforcement, and high logistics costs, unlike Germany and Singapore, which excel in trade facilitation. 
  • Low Score in Business Location: Regulatory inconsistencies and approval delays hinder the establishment of business facilities, affecting investment decisions. 
  • Positive Aspects: India is expected to perform well in the three core pillars of B-READY, highlighting strengths in operational and regulatory areas. 

What are the Recommendations in the Business Ready (B-READY) Report 2024? 

• Streamline Business Operations: Simplify and digitize business registration, regulatory approvals, and customs processes to reduce delays, lower costs, and enhance efficiency, inspired by models like Singapore’s single-day registration system. 
• Strengthen Public Services and Digital Transformation: Invest in key public services such as tax portals, utility access, and dispute resolution mechanisms while promoting digital tools to improve compliance and operational efficiency. 
• Promote Sustainability and Inclusivity: Develop policies that encourage environmentally sustainable business practices and enforce gender-sensitive regulations to foster inclusivity and align with global climate goals. 
• Facilitate Peer Learning and Collaboration: Encourage economies to share knowledge and learn from best-performing countries like Singapore, Rwanda, and Estonia to adopt innovative practices in regulatory and operational frameworks. 
• Adopt Tailored Reforms: Design customized policy frameworks that address unique local challenges while adhering to global standards for inclusive and balanced economic growth. 

Drishti Mains Question

What is the significance of the Business Ready (B-READY) report 2024, and how does it differ from the previous Ease of Doing Business report in assessing the global business climate?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Prelims: 

Q. India’s ranking in the ‘Ease of Doing Business Index’ is sometimes seen in the news. Which of the following has declared that ranking? (2016) 

(a) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 

(b) World Economic Forum 

(c) World Bank 

(d) World Trade Organization (WTO) 

Ans: (c)

India’s Journey of Infrastructure Development

For Prelims: Infrastructure, GPS, Galathea Bay, India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, Sagarmala, Namo Bharat train, RRTS Corridor,  Parvatmala Programme, Ukraine, Gaza, Delhi-Mumbai Expressway, PM GatiShakti National Master Plan, Dedicated Freight Corridors, KAVACH, Alternative Fuels, Green Building, PLI.  

For Mains: Achievements, challenges and way forward for India’s Infrastructure Development. 

Source: BS 

Why in News?  

India's infrastructure has transformed over the past 25 years, with increased progress and private participation. However, challenges remain as 90% of the required infrastructure is yet to be built to reach its USD 30 trillion economy goal by 2047. 

What are India's Achievements in the Infrastructure Sector by 2024? 

• Roads and Highways: Road network nearly tripled to 146,000 km since 2000, featuring modern access-controlled expressways and GPS-based toll systems. 
  • Since 2014, the government has built 3.74 lakh km of rural roads, connecting over 99% of rural habitations and improving accessibility. 
  • Toll collections reached Rs 2.1 trillion, over 25 years, reflecting robust private sector participation. 

• Railways: India's first bullet train project, with trainsets capable of running at 280 km/h is set for completion by 2026. 
  • As of December 2023, 93.83% of the broad-gauge tracks (called large line and distance between the two tracks is 5 feet 6 inches) were electrified, up from 21,801 km in 2014. 
  • A reduction in consequential accidents over the past decade despite several high-profile incidents like the Kanchenjunga Express crash. 
• Maritime Sector: India plans to invest Rs 54 trillion to become a top-five shipbuilding nation by 2047. 
  • Mega ports like Galathea Bay and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor are being developed to boost trade connectivity. 
  • The government has launched 839 Sagarmala projects, including port modernization and coastal connectivity, with an investment of Rs 5.8 lakh crore. 
• Aviation: Weekly domestic flights increased from 3,568 in 2000 to 22,484 in 2024. 
  • Low-cost carriers like IndiGo dominate the market, democratizing air travel for millions. 
  • Orders for over 1,000 planes from Air India and IndiGo signal long-term growth. 
  • The total number of operational airports stands at 158, with 84 airports constructed between 2014 and 2024. 

• Urban Metro: The metro network has grown from 248 km in 2014 to 945 km by 2024, serving 21 cities and 1 crore daily passengers.  
  • The Namo Bharat train on the Delhi-Meerut RRTS corridor enhances regional connectivity and urban transport. 
• Ropeways Development: The Parvatmala Programme has seen the initiation of 32 ropeway projects, enhancing connectivity in difficult terrains and reducing urban congestion.

Note: India ranked 38^th in the World Bank's Logistics Performance Index (LPI) 2023. 

What are the Challenges in India’s Infrastructure Sector? 

• Stalled and Delayed Projects: The Rs 10 trillion Bharatmala Project was shelved due to red tape, while the Rs 20 trillion Vision 2047 plan has been deferred following a policy shift. 
  • Financial constraints and underutilization of resources hinder large-scale projects like the Delhi-Mumbai Expressway and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor. 
  • India needs significant investments to become a USD 30 trillion economy by 2047, with 90% of infrastructure still to be built. 
• Sluggish Progress: Railway route expansion has been slow, with only 231 km of new tracks added annually on average since 2000, reflecting less than a kilometer per day.  
  • Contract awarding for highway projects fell drastically, with only 1,152 km awarded by August 2024, a historic low. 
• Private Sector Dependency: While private sector involvement has grown, the recycling of capital for projects remains a challenge.  
  • Toll collection has raised equity concerns, with private corporations receiving Rs 1.4 trillion of the Rs 2.1 trillion collected since 2000. 
  • Recycling of capital is a strategy of selling non-core or underperforming assets and reinvesting in more profitable opportunities. 
• Maritime Disruption: The maritime sector struggles to meet its 2047 goal of becoming a top-5 shipbuilding nation, hindered by Ukraine and Gaza wars and the collapse of the global supply chain. 
• Aviation Sector Bottlenecks: Intense competition has led to the bankruptcy of several airlines, including Jet Airways, Kingfisher Airlines, and Go First. 
• Market consolidation between IndiGo and privatised Air India limits competition and poses risks of monopolistic tendencies. 

What are Government Initiatives for Infrastructure Development? 

• PM Gati Shakti Scheme 
• Bharatmala scheme 
• National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP) 
• Sagarmala Project 
• Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik (UDAN) 

Way Forward 

• Integrated Infrastructure: The PM GatiShakti National Master Plan ensures infrastructure projects complement each other, reducing delays and duplication, while boosting high-speed connectivity. 
  • High-speed transport networks, such as expressways, high-speed rail corridors, dedicated freight corridors,  upgraded airports, and multi-modal logistics parks boost trade and supply chain performance. 
• Safer and Resilient Infrastructure: The government’s initiatives, like KAVACH for railways and the Advanced Traffic Management System, aim to reduce accidents and improve safety.  
  • Adopting technologies like Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) in vehicles and building safer infrastructure will further protect citizens and reduce fatalities. 
• Incorporating Green Technologies: The shift to EVs and alternative fuels in public transport will reduce the transportation sector's carbon footprint, with schemes like FAME-II and PLI accelerating this transition. 
  • Focusing on green building practices, water conservation, waste management, and renewable energy will make future infrastructure sustainable and climate-resilient. 
• Technological Integration: The use of technology, such as FASTags for smooth toll payments and Digiyatra apps for easy airport check-ins, enhance convenience and save travel time. 
• Policy and Regulatory Reforms: India must pursue regulatory reforms and a clear policy framework to boost private sector investment, especially in ports, railways, and aviation, to meet infrastructure targets 
  • The government, private sector, and local communities should collaborate to develop a multi-year National Transport Strategy, including essential policies and investments. 

Drishti Mains Question: 

Analyze the achievements and challenges in India's infrastructure sector and suggest measures for its future growth.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Prelims

Q. In India, the term “Public Key Infrastructure” is used in the context of (2020)

(a) Digital security infrastructure 

(b) Food security infrastructure 

(c) Health care and education infrastructure 

(d) Telecommunication and transportation infrastructure 

Ans: (a)

Q. With reference to ‘National Investment and Infrastructure Fund’, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2017)

1. It is an organ of NITI Aayog.
2. It has a corpus of `4,00,000 crore at present.

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 only  

(b) 2 only 

(c) Both 1 and 2  

(d) Neither 1 nor 2 

Ans: (d)

Mains: 

Q. “Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.” Discuss in the light of India’s experience. (2021)

H-1B Visa Program

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

The H-1B visa program has recently garnered significant attention amidst political debates.  with prominent figures, including Elon Musk, have voiced support for its continuation, emphasizing its role in addressing the US’s STEM talent shortages.  

What is the H-1B Visa Program? 

• About: The H-1B is a non-immigrant visa which allows US-based companies to hire and employ foreign workers for specialty jobs like science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM), and IT (High skills and at least a bachelor’s degree) 
  • It was introduced in 1990 to help US employers address skill shortages when qualified US workers are unavailable. 
  • A nonimmigrant visa allows temporary entry to the US for purposes like tourism, business, work, study, or medical treatment. 
• Visa Duration: An H-1B visa can be issued for a maximum of six years. After this period, the visa holder must either leave the US for at least 12 months before reapplying for another H-1B visa or apply for permanent residence (a Green Card). 
• Annual Cap and Exemptions: Currently, there is a regular annual cap of 65,000 new H-1B visas each fiscal year. 
  • An additional 20,000 visas are available for applicants who hold a master’s degree or higher from a US university. 
  • Petitions for H-1B visa holders seeking continued employment and those seeking employment at higher education institutions, affiliated nonprofits, or government research organizations are eligible for cap exemption. 
• Dominance of Indians: People born in India are the largest beneficiaries accounting for more than 70% of all approved H-1B petitions annually since 2015. 
  • People born in China rank second, consistently making up 12-13% of petitions since 2018. 

Other US Nonimmigrant Visa Categories

Visa Category	Purpose of Travel
O	Foreign national with extraordinary ability in Sciences, Arts, Education, Business or Athletics
H-2A	Temporary agricultural worker
H-2B	Temporary worker performing other services or labor of a temporary or seasonal nature
B-2	Tourism, vacation, pleasure visitor
V	Nonimmigrant Visa for Spouse and Children of a Lawful Permanent Resident

Note: China and India dominate the STEM fields worldwide.  

• According to data presented by the Centre for Security and Emerging Technology (CSET), a US based think tank, in 2020, China (3.57 million) and India (2.55 million) led the world in STEM graduates, far surpassing the US (820,000). 

Global Polio Resurgence

Source: TH 

Why in News?

Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) has identified the presence of poliovirus in multiple countries, including Pakistan, Cameroon, and several European nations.  

• The research suggests that poliovirus may be primarily transmitted via the respiratory route rather than the traditionally assumed faecal-oral route. 

What are the Key Factors Contributing to Polio Resurgence? 

• Detection of Poliovirus: The resurgence of polio is evidenced by recent detections of both wild and vaccine-derived poliovirus in various countries.  
  • In 2024, Pakistan reported a total of 62 cases of wild poliovirus type 1 (WPV1). 
  • Environmental samples containing poliovirus have also been found in cities such as Barcelona, Warsaw, and Cologne (Germany), indicating potential undetected or unvaccinated populations at risk. 
• Immunisation Gaps: In fragile and conflict-affected areas, routine immunization coverage has dropped significantly, making children more vulnerable to polio outbreaks. 
  • Eg: In Sudan's active conflict zones, vaccination coverage has dropped sharply from 85% to just 30%. 
• Shift in Vaccine Strategy: The Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) has been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-derived poliovirus cases (cVDPV), which complicates eradication efforts. 
  • Recent research emphasizes the need for a transition to IPV, which is non-transmissible and provides effective protection against paralysis caused by poliovirus. 

Difference Between Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) and Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) 

• Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) 
  • Advantages: 
    • No risk of Vaccine-derived Polio: IPV contains inactivated virus particles, which means there is no risk of the vaccine causing vaccine-induced polio. 
    • Safe for Immunocompromised Individuals: Because IPV uses a dead virus, it is safe for people with weakened immune systems. 
    • Durable Immunity: IPV requires multiple boosters to maintain immunogenicity against polio virus infection. 
  • Disadvantages: 
    • Higher Cost: IPV is more expensive to produce and administer compared to OPV. 
    • Requires Multiple Doses: A complete IPV vaccination schedule typically involves a series of 2-4 shots to provide full immunity. 
    • Limited Mucosal Immunity: IPV does not provide strong immunity in the mucous membranes (e.g., the gut), which means it may be less effective at preventing virus transmission compared to OPV. 
• Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) 
  • Advantages: 
    • Lower Cost: OPV is cheaper to produce and distribute, making it more accessible in resource-limited settings. 
    • Fewer Doses Required: OPV typically requires only one or a few doses to achieve effective immunity. 
    • Better Mucosal Immunity: OPV provides strong mucosal immunity, particularly in the intestines, which helps to reduce the transmission of the poliovirus. 
  • Disadvantages: 
    • Risk of Vaccine-derived Polio: OPV contains live, attenuated poliovirus, which in rare cases can revert to a form that causes outbreaks of vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV). 
    • Not Safe for Immunocompromised Individuals: Because it contains live virus, OPV can be dangerous for people with weakened immune systems. 
    • Shorter-lasting Immunity: Immunity from OPV may not be as long-lasting as that from IPV, requiring additional doses or boosters over time. 

What is Polio? 

• About: 
  • Polio (poliomyelitis)  is a highly contagious viral disease affecting mainly children under five, spreading via the fecal-oral route or contaminated food/water, potentially causing paralysis by invading the nervous system. 
  • There are three individual and immunologically distinct wild poliovirus strains: 
    • Wild Poliovirus type 1 (WPV1), WPV2 and WPV3. 
• Types of Vaccines: 
  • Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV): It protects against poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3 
  • Trivalent oral polio vaccine (tOPV): It protects against poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3 - following the "OPV Switch" in April 2016, tOPV is no longer in use. 
    • The OPV switch was a global effort to replace the tOPV with the bOPV in April 2016. 
  • Bivalent oral polio vaccine (bOPV): It protects against poliovirus types 1, and 3 
  • Monovalent oral polio vaccines (mOPV1, mOPV2 and mOPV3): It protects against each individual type of poliovirus, respectively. 
• Initiatives Taken to Eradicate Polio: 
  • India Specific: 
    • Pulse Polio Programme 
    • Intensified Mission Indradhanush 2.0 
  • Global Initiatives: 
    • Polio Eradication and Endgame Strategic Plan 2013-2018  
    • World Polio Day (24th October) 
    • Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question 

Prelims

Q. ‘Mission Indradhanush’ launched by the Government of India pertains to (2016)

(a) immunisation of children and pregnant women 

(b) construction of smart cities across the country 

(c) India’s own search for the Earth-like planets in outer space 

(d) New Educational Policy

Ans: (a)

Q. Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’? (2017)

1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers. 
2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women. 
3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice. 
4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 and 2 only 

(b) 1, 2 and 3 only 

(c) 1, 2 and 4 only 

(d) 3 and 4 only

Ans: (a)

Shivaji Statue at Pangong Lake

Source: HT 

Recently, a statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was inaugurated on the banks of Pangong Tso at an altitude of 14,300 feet. 

• It was unveiled shortly after India and China completed disengagement at Demchok and Depsang, ending a 4.5 year border standoff. 
• However, it has sparked debate among army veterans and locals, with a retired Colonel proposing a statue of Dogra general Zorawar Singh, whose 1834-1840 campaign merged Ladakh with the Dogra kingdom under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. 
• Pangong Tso: It is an endorheic lake in the Himalayas situated at a height of about 4,350 m (14,270 ft). 
  • It is one of the world's highest brackish water lakes, formed as a tectonic lake during the collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate.  
  • This event created the Himalayas and led to the lake occupying the space of the Tethys Ocean. 

Read More: Chinese Bridge on Pangong Lake

Vembanad Lake

Source: TH 

The Alappuzha district administration in Kerala will launch a mega plastic cleaning drive as part of the Vembanad lake rejuvenation project. This initiative aims to restore the health of the lake, a Ramsar site and India’s second-largest wetland system. 

• Additional efforts include establishing a bio-shield, setting up a Vembanad Lake Interpretation Centre, a yarn museum, bottle booths, promoting community tourism, and stocking fish seeds. 
  • Awareness programmes will be held for fishers, houseboat employees, and local residents to emphasize the importance of lake conservation. 
• A 2023 study revealed the degraded state of Vembanad lake, impacting the livelihoods of around eight million people. The lake's water retention capacity has declined by 85.3% from 1990 to 2020. 
• Vembanad Lake: Vembanad is the largest lake in Kerala and the longest lake in India. 
  • Vembanad-Kol is the largest brackish, humid tropical wetland ecosystem on the southwest coast of India. It is fed by 10 rivers and is typical of large estuarine systems on the western coast. 
  • In 2002, Vembanad was designated as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance. 
  • It is also included in the National Wetlands Conservation Programme by the Government of India. 
  • Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, also known as the Vembanad Bird Sanctuary, is located on the lake's east coast. 

Read more:  Vembanad Lake: Kerala 

Rapid World Championship

Source: TH 

Recently, Grand Master Koneru Humpy won the 2024 FIDE (International Chess Federation) World Rapid Championship in New York, marking an exceptional year for Indian chess. 

• Koneru Humpy defeated Irene Sukandar of Indonesia in the final and became the 1st Indian and only the 2nd player after China’s Wenjun Ju to win the women’s rapid world title more than once. 
  • Humpy won her first World Rapid title in 2019 in Georgia. 
    • She won a bronze in the 2012 World Rapid Championship and 2nd place in 2023 in Uzbekistan. 
• Previously, D Gukesh became the youngest world champion after defeating Ding Liren (China) in the World Chess Championship 2024 in Singapore. 
• 2024 also saw India’s victory in both the open and women’s sections of the Chess Olympiad in Budapest. 
• In the World Rapid Championship, each round has a time control of 15 minutes, with 10-second increments per move. 

Read More: The Rising Popularity of Chess in India

Surya Kiran Military Exercise

Source: BS 

The 18^th edition of Indo-Nepal joint training Exercise “Surya Kiran” between India and Nepal is being conducted at Saljhandi, Nepal in January 2025. 

• The 17^th edition of the exercise was held in December 2023 in Uttarakhand. 

 

• Exercise Surya Kiran: It is a military exercise conducted annually between India and Nepal, held alternately in both countries. 
• Objective: 
  • Enhance interoperability between the two armies in Counter-Terrorism (CT) Operations, jungle warfare, and mountain operations. 
  • Improve coordination in Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) under the United Nations (UN) Charter. 
  • Focus on operational preparedness, aviation aspects, medical training, and environment conservation. 
• India-Nepal Relation: Nepal shares a 1,850 km border with 5 Indian states: Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.  
  • The India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, signed in 1950, forms the foundation of their special bilateral relations. 
  • Koshi Agreement (1954, revised in 1966), Mahakali Treaty (1996) and Gandak Agreement (1959, revised in 1964) are the major water-sharing agreements between India and Nepal. 

Read More: Major Military Exercises of India