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  • 27 Jun 2024
  • 59 min read
Infographics

Directive Principles of State Policy Final

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Indian Polity

1975 Emergency and its Impact

For Prelims: Breakdown of constitutional machinery, National Emergency, Constitutional Emergency, Financial Emergency.

For Mains: Indian Constitution, Emergency Provisions, Type of Emergencies

Source: ET

Why in News?

Recently, the Prime Minister of India has paid homage to all those great men and women who resisted the National Emergency of 1975.

  • 25th June 2024 marked the 49th anniversary of the declaration of the national emergency in India.

What is an Emergency?

  • About:
    • It refers to legal measures and clauses within a country's constitution or laws that enable the government to respond swiftly and effectively to extraordinary situations, such as war, rebellion, or other crises that threaten the nation's stability, security, or sovereignty and democracy of India.
  • Provisions in Constitution:
    • These provisions are outlined in Article 352 to Article 360 under Part XVIII of the Constitution.
    • The emergency provisions in the Indian Constitution draw inspiration from Germany's Weimar Constitution.
Articles Subject Matter
Article 352 Proclamation of Emergency
Article 353 Effect of Proclamation of Emergency
Article 354 Application of provisions relating to the distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation
Article 355 Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance
Article 356 Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States
Article 357 Exercise of legislative powers under proclamation issued under Article 356
Article 358 Suspension of provisions of Article 19 during Emergencies
Article 359 Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during Emergencies
Article 360 Provisions as to Financial Emergency

  • Significance:
    • These provisions usually give the executive branch temporary authority to bypass standard legislative procedures, limit certain rights and freedoms, and implement policies that would ordinarily fall outside its jurisdiction under normal conditions.

What are the Types of Emergency in the Indian Constitution?

  • National Emergency (Article 352):
    • Under Article 352, the President is empowered to declare a state of emergency if he is satisfied that the security of the country or any part thereof is threatened by war, external aggression (External Emergency), or armed rebellion (Internal Emergency).
      • The term ‘armed rebellion’ was inserted by the 44th amendment replacing internal disturbance.
    • The declaration grants the executive vast powers to suspend fundamental rights (except Articles 20 and 21), allowing the government to take necessary measures to address the crisis effectively.
  • Duration and Parliamentary Approval:
    • The proclamation of emergency must be approved by both the houses of Parliament within one month from the date of its issue.
      • However, if the proclamation of emergency is issued at a time when the Lok Sabha has been dissolved without approving the proclamation, then the proclamation survives until 30 days from the first sitting of Lok Sabha after its reconstitution, provided the Rajya Sabha has in the meantime approved it.
    • If approved by both the houses, the Emergency continues for 6 months and can be extended to an indefinite period with an approval of the Parliament for every six months.
    • Every resolution approving the proclamation of emergency or its continuance must be passed by either House of Parliament by a special majority.
  • Revocation of Proclamation:
    • A proclamation of Emergency may be revoked by the President at any time by a subsequent proclamation. Such proclamation does not require parliamentary approval.
    • The emergency must be revoked if the Lok Sabha passes a resolution by a simple majority disapproving its continuation.
  • Applicability of National Emergency:
    • A proclamation of National Emergency may apply to the entire country or only a part of it.
      • The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976 enabled the President to limit the operation of a National Emergency to a specific part of India.
  • Judicial Review of National Emergency:
    • 38th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1975: It made the declaration of a National Emergency immune to judicial review.
    • 44th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1978: It repealed this provision of the 38th Amendment, thereby restoring the judiciary's ability to review the declaration of a National Emergency.
    • Minerva Mills Case, 1980: In this the Supreme Court ruled that the proclamation of a National Emergency can be challenged in court on grounds of malafide intent or if the declaration was based on extraneous or irrelevant facts.
  • State Emergency or President Rule (Article 356):

  • Some of many Examples of Imposition of President Rule:
    • Maharashtra (2019): It was imposed for a short period following political uncertainty after the assembly elections, but a new government was formed within a week.
    • Uttarakhand (2020): It was imposed for a similar short duration due to a political crisis involving a floor test in the assembly.
    • Uttar Pradesh (1991-1992): Imposed following the assassination of then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and subsequent political instability.
    • Punjab (1987-1992): Imposed due to heightened militancy and internal disturbances.
    • Scope of Judicial Review
      • The Supreme Court has laid down guidelines in various cases such as S.R. Bommai vs Union of India, 1994 and Rameshwar Prasad vs Union of India, 2006 regarding the use of Article 356.
      • S.R. Bommai vs. Union of India, 1994:
        • The Supreme Court ruled that imposing President's Rule is subject to Judicial Review.
        • It established that the satisfaction of the President must be based on relevant material, and a proclamation based on irrelevant or extraneous grounds can be struck down.
        • The State Legislative Assembly should only be dissolved after Parliament has approved the proclamation; until then, the President can only suspend the assembly.
        • It emphasised that the power under Article 356 is exceptional and should be used only occasionally to meet the requirements of special situations.
    • Recommendation Regarding Article 356:
      • Punchhi Commission:
      • It recommended localising emergency provisions under Articles 355 and 356 by bringing only specific areas like a district or parts of a district under the President's rule instead of the entire State.
      • They also suggested that such Emergency provisions should not last for more than 3 months.
      • Sarkaria Commission:
        • Article 356 is a measure of last resort for preventing or rectifying the breakdown of the Constitutional Machinery of the State.
        • It can only be invoked in the event of political crisis, internal subversion, physical breakdown, and non-compliance with constitutional directives of the Centre.
        • The Governor's report should be a 'speaking document' and given wide publicity.
        • The Governor should recommend a proclamation of the President’s Rule without dissolving the Legislative Assembly.
  • Financial Emergency (Article 360):
    • This provision allows the President to declare a state of financial emergency if he is satisfied that the financial stability or credit of India or any part thereof is threatened.
    • During a Financial Emergency, the President can direct the reduction of salaries and allowances of all or any class of persons serving in the civil services, including judges of the SC and High Courts.
    • The central government also gains control over the financial resources of the states, with the power to give directions for their efficient management.
    • The proclamation of a financial emergency must be approved by both houses of Parliament within 2 months. If not approved, the proclamation ceases to have effect. However, any such proclamation may be revoked or varied by the President at any time.
    • Unlike the other two types of emergencies, a Financial Emergency has been never proclaimed in India to date.

How Many Times Emergency was Imposed in India?

  • National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times so far in India:
    • Indo-China War (1962): Declared due to "external aggression" in 1962 during the Sino-Indian War.
    • Indo-Pak War (1971): Imposed on the grounds of "external aggression" in 1971 during the Indo-Pakistani War.
    • (1975-1977): The third and most controversial national emergency was declared in 1975, primarily due to "internal disturbance" amidst internal political unrest. This period witnessed a significant suspension of civil liberties.

What were the Impacts of Imposing National Emergency in 1975?

  • Constitutional Changes:
    • Constitution (39th Amendment) Act, 1975 was enacted in response to the Allahabad High Court's ruling declaring PM Indira Gandhi's election void.
      • The Act placed disputes involving the president, Vice President, prime minister, and Speaker beyond the judiciary's scope and included certain Central Acts in the Ninth Schedule.
    • Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 of India significantly increased the power of the central government and Prime Minister's office by introducing-
      • Increased central government control by allowing deployment of forces in states and overriding state laws during emergencies.
      • Limited judicial review of laws and amendments, making them less accountable.
      • Extended the terms of Parliament and state assemblies.
      • Allowed laws overriding fundamental rights in case of anti-national activities.
    • Constitution (44th Amendment) Act, 1978:
      • It sought to rectify the imbalances created by the 42nd Amendment, 1976 and restore the primacy of fundamental rights. Key changes included
        • Limiting Suspension of Rights: The right to life and liberty under Article 21 could not be suspended during any emergency.
        • Judicial Review: The Supreme Court's power to review presidential proclamations of emergency was reinforced.
        • On Emergency: It made the requirement for the President to act on the written recommendation of the cabinet before declaring a national emergency under Article 352.
  • Emergency Acted as a Vaccine Against Dictatorship:
    • The period of emergency in 1975-77 serves as a reminder of the importance of democracy and the dangers of unrestrained executive authority. This recognition can motivate efforts to enhance democratic systems by implementing restrictions on the Prime Minister's power in times of crisis.
    • Emergency undermined India's democratic integrity and oppressed people under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) and Defence of India Rules (DIR) and exposed the vulnerability of democratic institutions and fostered cynicism about leadership.
  • Vocalism About Rights:
    • Strict control over media stifled dissent and limited access to information which led to emergence of grassroots movements and underground press challenging the government's narrative and advocating for human rights such as
      • Navnirman Andolan in Gujarat: A youth-led movement advocating for democratic rights and social justice.
      • Jayaprakash Narayan Movement in Bihar: A movement calling for social and political reforms.
      • George Fernandes-led Railway Strike: A powerful demonstration of worker solidarity and dissent against government policies.
  • Evolving Role of Judicial Activism:
    • The Emergency period highlighted the fluctuating role of judicial activism, with the ADM Jabalpur case showing concerns about overreach, but subsequent judgments like habeas corpus petitions and the Menaka Gandhi case reaffirming a commitment to uphold fundamental rights, paving the way for a stronger system of judicial review in India.
      • ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla, 1976 upheld the suspension of fundamental rights during an emergency. It argued that the right to life could be restricted by the government for national security. This decision sparked outrage and accusations of judicial overreach, weakening the protection of fundamental rights.
      • Habeas Corpus Petitions: These petitions, filed by individuals detained during the Emergency, challenged the government's actions. This marked a shift towards a more robust judicial review.
      • State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain, 1975, Supreme Court ruled Prime Minister Indira Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractices which highlighted the judiciary's independence even during a politically sensitive time.
      • In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India 1978, the SC overruled the ADM Jabalpur judgement and re-established the primacy of fundamental rights and limited the power to suspend them during emergencies. It gave a new dimension to Article 21 and held that the right to live is not merely a physical right but includes within its ambit the right to live with human dignity.
  • Changes in Political Parties' Attitude:
    • The Emergency united previously disparate opposition parties. This underscored the importance of a strong opposition in a democracy. Political parties became wary of resorting to similar measures in the future, valuing democratic processes.

Conclusion

India's Constitution has emergency provisions that include checks and balances, preventing their misuse. These measures safeguard democracy, uphold the rule of law, and protect individual rights during crises. They ensure the Union government remains accountable within constitutional and democratic frameworks.

Drishti Mains Question:

What are emergency provisions under the constitution of India? How has the check and balance for the implementation of these provisions fixed the accountabilities of the Union government?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q) Which of the following is/are the exclusive power(s) of Lok Sabha?(2022)

  1. To ratify the declaration of Emergency
  2. To pass a motion of no-confidence against the Council of Ministers
  3. To impeach the President of India

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 only

(c) 1 and 3

(d) 3 only

Ans: (b)

Q) With reference to the constitution of India, prohibition or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following?(2019)

(a) The decisions taken by the Election Commision of India while discharging its duties can not be challenged in any court of law.

(b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by laws made by the parliament.

(c) In the event of grave financial crises in the country, the President of India can declare Financial Emergency without the counsel from the cabinet.

(d) State Legislatures can not make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of the Union legislature.

Ans: (b)

Q) If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then(2018)

(a) the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved.

(b) the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament.

(c) Article 19 is suspended in that State.

(d) the President can make laws relating to that State.

Ans: (b)

Mains

Q) Under what circumstances can the Financial Emergency be proclaimed by the President of India? What consequences follow when such a declaration remains in force? (2018)

Geography

India's Water Stress and Hydropower

For Prelims: Hydropower Generation, Water Stress, Credit Rating Agencies, GDP, World Bank, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana, Jal Shakti Abhiyan- Catch the Rain Campaign, Atal Bhujal Yojana 

For Mains: Water Resources, Conservation of Resources, Reasons for the Water Scarcity in India and ways to address it. 

Source: LM 

Why in News? 

Recently, Moody's Ratings has warned that India's escalating water shortage, climate change-driven natural disasters can disrupt several sectors including agricultural production and industrial operations which could undermine the country's sovereign credit strength.  

What is the Current State of Hydropower Generation in India? 

  • Current State of Hydropower Generation:  
    • Hydropower generation in India has declined by 17.33% from 162.05 billion units in FY23 to 133.97 billion units in FY24. 
    • India's installed large hydro capacity currently stands at 46.92 GW, constituting approximately 10% of the nation's total power generation capability of 442.85 GW.  
    • Capacity addition of large hydropower projects witnessed a decline in FY24, with only 60 MW added compared to 120 MW in FY23.  
  • Factors Responsible of Low Hydropower Generation: 
    • Delayed and Irregular monsoons: The southwest monsoon has been delayed this year and the patchy rainfall due to El-nino Effect and a prolonged dry spell last year have left water reservoirs drying up. 
    • Low Reservoir Levels: India's 150 key reservoirs had a live storage of only 37.662 BCM, representing 21% of their live storage capacity and 80% less than the previous year. 
      • The Indira Sagar reservoir in Madhya Pradesh, which supports a hydel capacity of 1 GW, is currently 17% full, down from 24% at this time last year (2023).  
      • Meanwhile, the Koyana dam in Maharashtra, with a hydro power capacity of 1.9 GW, is at 10% capacity, lower than the usual level of 15% for this time of year. 
    • Shutdown of Hydropower Plants: Some hydropower plants were shut down in the last few years due to the adverse impact of floods and cloudbursts, and these plants are yet to resume operations. 
  • Implications of Low Hydropower for Energy Sector: 
    • Increased Reliance on Thermal Power: With declining hydropower generation compared to last year, coal-fired power plants will have the load to meet the rising power demand. 
    • Disruptions in Power Supply: Industries with high water usage, such as coal power plants and steel makers, will be impacted by the shortage of water supply.  
      • Further delay in monsoons has led to several thermal power plants not undergoing the required maintenance, which may lead to faults and trippings in power supply. 
    • Reduced Hydropower Potential: The decline in water availability will further limit the potential for hydropower generation, which is a crucial component of India's renewable energy component. 

What are Threats to India’s Sovereign Credit Profile Identified by Moody's Ratings? 

  • Moody has highlighted a potential threat to India's sovereign credit profile arising from the nation's water scarcity. 
  • Moody's has currently assigned India a Baa3 stable rating, the lowest investment-grade and warned that India's low investment-grade credit rating could be downgraded due to water scarcity and the increasing frequency and severity of climate change-driven natural disasters. 
  • It has raised concern regarding critical sectors like manufacturing, coal-fired power plants, steel production and agriculture, which would be most affected by it leading to inflationary pressures on food prices, reduced incomes for affected businesses and communities and increased volatility in India's economic growth. 

What is the Current State of Water in India? 

  • Water scarcity: India has a large population (18% of the world's total) but limited freshwater resources (only 4% of the world's total). This makes it a water-stressed country. 
  • Water pollution: Around 50% of India's rivers are contaminated and polluted, making the water unsafe for drinking or irrigation. 
  • Overdependence on groundwater: India is the world's largest user of groundwater, which is leading to depletion of these resources. 
    • Groundwater plays a vital role in ensuring water security in rural and urban areas, fulfilling around 80% of the drinking water requirements and two-thirds of agricultural irrigation needs in the country. 
  • Climate Vulnerability: Around three-quarters of India's districts are vulnerable to extreme weather events like droughts and floods, which can further disrupt water availability. 

Note:  

  • According to a study conducted by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW), 55% of tehsils in India have encountered a substantial increase of more than 10% in southwest monsoon rainfall over the past decade compared to the preceding three. 

What are the Causes of Water Stress in India ? 

  • Rapid Economic Growth and Urbanisation: India's population has grown rapidly, from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.3 billion in 2024. 
    • This has led to a significant increase in water demand for both domestic and industrial uses, putting a strain on already stressed resources. Industries, major water consumers, further exacerbate the problem by polluting water bodies with their effluents. 
  • Declining Water Availability: According to the Ministry of Jal Shakti, India's average annual water availability per capita is likely to drop to 1,367 cubic metres by 2031 from an already-low 1,486 cubic metres in 2021. 
    • A level below 1,700 cubic metres indicates water stress, with 1,000 cubic metres being the threshold for water scarcity. 
  • Climate Change and Weakening Monsoon Patterns: The Indian Ocean has been warming at a rate of 1.2 degrees Celsius per century during 1950-2020, and this is expected to intensify to 1.7-3.8 degrees Celsius during 2020-2100. 
    • This warming is leading to a narrowing gap between land and sea temperatures, weakening the monsoon circulation and resulting in more severe and frequent droughts. 
    • Changing weather patterns and melting glaciers in the Himalayas are altering the availability and distribution of water resources. 
  • Agricultural Practices and Inefficient Usage: Agriculture accounts for over 80% of India's total water usage.  
    • Inefficient irrigation techniques, such as flood irrigation, cultivation of water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane in water-scarce regions further strains water resources. 
  • Groundwater Depletion: According to the Central Ground Water Board, 54% of India's groundwater resources are overexploited due to excessive and unregulated groundwater extraction for irrigation and other purposes. 
  • Poor Water Infrastructure and Management: India's water management system suffers from deficiencies in infrastructure and governance. Inadequate storage, distribution, and treatment facilities lead to significant water losses and inefficiencies.  
    • Additionally, weak water management policies, monitoring, and enforcement worsen these issues. 
  • Water Pollution: Industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and domestic sewage have polluted many of India's surface and groundwater resources. This has reduced the availability of clean, usable water for various purposes. 

What are the Implications of Water Scarcity in India? 

  • Health Impacts: Lack of access to safe drinking water can lead to various health issues like dehydration, infections, and waterborne diseases. The NITI Aayog reports that around 200,000 people die in India annually due to inadequate water supply and related issues. 
  • Ecological Damage: Water scarcity poses a threat to wildlife and natural habitats, as animals are forced to venture into human settlements, leading to conflicts and endangerment.  
    • It has also disrupted the biodiversity and ecological balance of ecosystems. 
  • Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Agricultural sector, which consumes 85% of India's water resources, has been negatively affected with water scarcity leading to reduced crop yields, affecting food security, and increasing poverty among farmers. 
  • Economic Losses: Water scarcity can hamper India's economic growth and development by affecting industrial production, reducing energy generation, and increasing the cost of water supply and treatment. 
    • The World Bank's 'Climate Change, Water and Economy' report (2016) warns that countries with water shortages may face a significant setback in economic growth by 2050. 
  • Effect on India’s Climate Goal: India targets generating 50% of its electricity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030 and lower hydropower output would lead to relying heavily on solar and wind power to fulfil its climate pledge. 

Initiatives Related to Water Management 

Way Forward 

  • Sustainable Groundwater Management: There is a need to devise a proper mechanism and rural-urban integrated projects for artificial recharge to groundwater and rainwater harvesting at household level, conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater, and regulation of water reservoirs. 
  • Smart Agriculture: Drip irrigation is a powerful technology that can reduce water consumption by 20-40% while increasing crop yield by 20-50% compared to furrow (flood) irrigation. 
    • Also, cultivation of less water-intensive crops like pulses, millets and oilseeds should be encouraged in water-stressed regions. 
  • Blue-Green Infrastructure: Combining green and blue elements together in modern infrastructure planning can be an effective way of providing a sustainable natural solution for watershed management and eco friendly infrastructure. 
    • Green indicates: Gardens, permeable pavements, green roofs. 
    • Blue indicates: Water bodies like rivers, canals, ponds and wetlands. 
  • Using Modern Water Management Techniques: Information Technology can be integrated with water-related data systems to enhance management and efficiency. 
    • Recent advances in technology have enabled the purification of water previously deemed unfit for consumption, making it clean and safe.  
    • Some of the most commonly used techniques include Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR), Desalination, Nanofiltration, and Solar and UV Filtration. 

Drishti Mains Question: 

What is Water Stress? Discuss the current challenges related to water management in India? 

 

 UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims 

Q.1 Which one of the following ancient towns is well known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs? (2021) 

(a) Dholavira 

(b) Kalibangan 

(c) Rakhigarhi 

(d) Ropar 

Ans: (a) 

Q.2 With reference to ‘Water Credit’, consider the following statements: (2021) 

  1. It puts microfinance tools to work in the water and sanitation sector. 
  2. It is a global initiative launched under the aegis of the World Health Organization and the World Bank. 
  3. It aims to enable the poor people to meet their water needs without depending on subsidies. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

(a) 1 and 2 only  

(b) 2 and 3 only  

(c) 1 and 3 only  

(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: (c) 

 Mains 

Q.1 What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched by the Government of India for water conservation and water security? (2020) 

Q.2 Suggest measures to improve water storage and irrigation system to make its judicious use under the depleting scenario. (2020) 

International Relations

Indus Water Treaty

Prelims: Kishanganga and Ratle Hydro Electric Projects, Indus Water Treaty (IWT), Indus and its tributaries

Mains: Indus Waters Treaty and associated implementation issues

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, a five-member Pakistani delegation was flown to Jammu’s Kishtwar to inspect power projects set up on the rivers covered under the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) of 1960.

What is Indus Water Treaty (IWT)?

  • About:
    • Indus Waters Treaty was signed on September 19, 1960, between India and Pakistan and was brokered by the World Bank.
    • The treaty sets out a mechanism for cooperation and information exchange between the two sides on the use of the water of the Indus River and its five tributaries Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Jhelum, and Chenab.
  • Key Provisions:
    • Water Sharing:
      • It prescribes how water from the six rivers of the Indus River System would be shared between India and Pakistan.
      • It allocated the three western rivers Indus, Chenab and Jhelum to Pakistan for unrestricted use, barring certain non-consumptive, agricultural and domestic uses by India and the three Eastern rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej were allocated to India for unrestricted usage.
        • This means that 80% of the share of water went to Pakistan while leaving the rest 20% of water for use by India.
    • Permanent Indus Commission:
    • Dispute Resolution Mechanism:
      • The IWT provides a three-step dispute resolution mechanism under which “questions” on both sides can be resolved at the Permanent Commission, or can also be taken up at the inter-government level.
      • Unresolved differences between the countries on water-sharing can be addressed by the World Bank-appointed Neutral Expert (NE).
        • Appeal from a Neutral Expert of WB can be referred to a Court of Arbitration set up by the World Bank.
  • Various Projects to be Inspected Under IWT:
    • Pakal Dul and Lower Kalnai: Pakal Dul Hydro Electric Project built on river Marusudar, a tributary of the Chenab. Lower Kalnai is developed on the Chenab.
    • Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project: It is a run-of-the-river project located in J&K.
      • Pakistan objected to the project arguing that it would affect the flow of the Kishanganga River (called the Neelum River in Pakistan).
      • In 2013, The Hague’s Permanent Court of Arbitration (CoA) ruled that India could divert all the water with certain conditions.
    • Ratle Hydroelectric Project: It is a run-of-the-river hydroelectric power station on the Chenab River, in J&K.

Indus River and its Tributaries

  • Source:
    • The Indus (In Tibetan called Sengge Chu/‘Lion River’), a major river in South Asia, originates in Tibet near Mansarovar Lake in the Trans-Himalaya.
    • The river flows through Tibet, India and Pakistan and about 200 million people live in the area of its drainage basin.
  • Course and Major Tributaries:
    • It enters India through Ladakh and flows through Jammu and Kashmir before reaching Pakistan's Gilgit-Baltistan region.
    • The major left-bank tributaries of the Indus River are the Zaskar, Suru, Soan, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj, and Panjnad rivers.
    • The major right-bank tributaries are Shyok, Gilgit, Hunza, Swat, Kunnar, Kurram, Gomal, and Kabul rivers.
    • The Indus River empties into the Arabian Sea near the city of Karachi in southern Pakistan.
River Source Joins
Jhelum Spring at Verinag, Kashmir Valley Chenab at Trimmu, Pakistan
Chenab Chandra and Bhaga streams near Bara Lacha Pass Satluj after receiving Jhelum and Ravi
Ravi Kullu hills near Rohtang Pass Chenab near Rangpur, Pakistan
Beas Near Rohtang Pass Satluj at Harike Barrage, India
Satluj Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes, Tibet Indus a few kilometres above Mithankot, Pakistan

Way Forward

  • Focus on Technical Dispute Resolution: Both sides should prioritise utilising the treaty's existing framework for resolving technical disputes.
  • Transparency and Data Sharing: Both nations can share hydrological data to address mutual concerns.
  • Joint Basin Management: Climate change and population growth pose common challenges in the Indus basin, urging joint management for water conservation, flood control, and sustainable usage.
  • Political Commitment and Dialogue: Sustainable solutions require a commitment from both governments to prioritize dialogue and cooperation over confrontation.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the key provisions of the Indus Water Treaty and its significance in India-Pakistan relations.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q. With reference to the Indus river system, of the following four rivers, three of them pour into one of them which joins the Indus directly. Among the following, which one is such a river that joins the Indus direct? (2021)

(a) Chenab

(b) Jhelum

(c) Ravi

(d) Sutle

Ans: (d)

Q. Consider the following pairs (2019)

Glacier River
1. Bandarpunch Yamuna
2. Bara Shigri Chenab
3. Milam Mandakini
4. Siachen Nubra
5. Zemu Manas

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) 1, 2 and 4

(b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 2 and 5

(d) 3 and 5

Ans: (a)

Mains:

Q. The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine. (2020)

Governance

UN Global Principles for Information Integrity

For Prelims: United Nations Secretary-General, Online Misinformation, Disinformation, Hate Speech, United Nations Global Principles for Information Integrity, Sustainable Development, Climate Related Action, AI Technologies

For Mains: Impact of misinformation and disinformation on societal unity and integrity.

Source: BS

Why in News?

Recently, the United Nations Secretary-General unveiled a set of ‘United Nations Global Principles for Information Integrity’ aimed at curbing the spread of online misinformation, disinformation, and hate speech.

  • These guidelines are designed to address the widespread harm caused by false information on digital platforms.

What are the United Nations Global Principles for Information Integrity?

  • These principles form the foundation of a vision for a more humane information ecosystem. The initiative aims to prioritise human rights and support sustainable development, climate action, democracy, and peace.
  • The 5 Global Principles for Information Integrity are as following:
    • Societal Trust and Resilience: Building societal trust and resilience to counteract the spread of misinformation and hate speech.
    • Independent, Free, and Pluralistic Media: Ensuring media independence, freedom, and diversity to support high-quality journalism and diverse viewpoints.
    • Healthy Incentives: Creating incentives that promote truthful and constructive content while discouraging the spread of harmful misinformation.
    • Transparency and Research: Enhancing transparency and supporting research to understand and mitigate the impact of misinformation and to develop effective solutions.
    • Public Empowerment: Empowering the public with the tools and knowledge to critically assess information, protect their rights, and participate in the information ecosystem responsibly.

Initiatives Taken Combat Misinformation and Disinformation

What are the Challenges Associated with Humane Information Ecosystem?

  • Speed and Scale of Misinformation Spread: Digital platforms and AI technologies have accelerated the spread of misinformation and hate speech, causing rapid and widespread harm.
    • For example State media outlets in Venezuela spread pro-government messages through AI-generated deepfake videos.
  • Impact on Social Cohesion and Democracy: False narratives and distortions undermine social cohesion, breed cynicism, disbelief, and disengagement, and damage the integrity of elections.
    • According to the Global Risk Report 2024, misinformation and disinformation are among the top five risks identified.
  • Reinforcement of Prejudices: Opaque algorithms create information bubbles that reinforce prejudices, including racism, misogyny, and various forms of discrimination.
    • For example algorithms creat eco-chamber effect which tend to show users content similar to what they’ve engaged with before.
    • It reinforces preconceived views or biases, making it harder for them to consider alternative viewpoints.
  • Targeting of Vulnerable Groups: Women, refugees, migrants, minorities, and activists often face targeted harassment and humiliation.
  • Monetisation of Harmful Content: Advertisers and the PR industry often profit from harmful content, exacerbating the spread of misinformation.
  • Weak Protections for Journalists: Journalists face threats and lack strong protections, which impacts their ability to report accurately and freely.

Misinformation, Disinformation and Hate Speech

  • Misinformation:
    • Misinformation is false or inaccurate information shared without intending to cause harm.
      • Example of misinformation is when someone shares an outdated weather forecast, believing it to be current.
  • Disinformation:
    • Disinformation refers to intentionally false or misleading information that is disseminated with the purpose of deceiving or misleading others.
    • Example: A fake news website publishes a fabricated story about a public health crisis to cause panic and distrust among the population.
  • Hate Speech:
    • Hate Speech refers to offensive discourse targeting a group or an individual based on inherent characteristics such as race, religion, or gender, and that may threaten social peace.
    • It typically involves epithets, malicious stereotypes, and statements intended to incite hatred or violence against a particular group.

Way Forward

  • Accountability of Big Tech Companies: Big Social Media companies must acknowledge the damage their products cause and take steps to mitigate harm by changing business models that profit from disinformation and hate.
  • Responsible Advertising and PR Practices: Advertisers and PR agencies should stop monetising harmful content, seek clients who do not mislead or harm the planet, and work to strengthen information integrity.
  • Improving Content or Information Standards in Media: Media outlets should raise content or Information standards to ensure quality journalism based on facts and reality, and find advertisers who support truthful content.
  • Government Commitment to Free Media: Governments should commit to creating and maintaining a free, independent, and plural media landscape, ensuring strong protections for journalists, and upholding human rights in regulations.
  • Public Empowerment: The public should demand accountability, choice, and control over their information environments to ensure free expression without fear of attack and to avoid being manipulated by algorithms.
  • Collective Action: Collaboration among all actors, including tech companies, advertisers, media, governments, and the public, is crucial to protecting information integrity and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Drishti Mains Question:

Discuss the "United Nations Global Principles for Information Integrity" and how they aim to address the challenges posed by online misinformation, disinformation, and hate speech.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Mains

Q. What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. (2014)

Important Facts For Prelims

Pink Flamingos

Source: DTE

Why in News?

Recently, climate change has altered water levels and salinity at Tanzania's Lake Natron, home to many pink flamingos, making nesting more difficult and causing their population to decline due to extreme weather and human encroachment.

What are the Key Facts About Flamingos?

  • About: It belongs to the family Phoenicopteridae.
    • There are six species of flamingo namely the Greater flamingo (state bird of Gujarat), Chilean flamingo, Lesser flamingo, Caribbean flamingo, Andean flamingo, and Puna flamingo that inhabit lakes, mudflats, and shallow lagoons in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Europe.
  • Distinctive Appearance: Known for their vibrant pink feathers, flamingos have long legs and necks, webbed feet, and a distinctive downward-curving bill adapted for filter-feeding.
    • Flamingos' habitats and food sources change by location and season, causing their colors to range from dark or bright pink to orange, red, or pure white.
  • Adaptations: Flamingos have adapted to extreme environments with high salinity and temperatures, where their predators are limited.
  • Ecological Role: They play a crucial ecological role by maintaining the health of their habitats through their feeding activities, which affect nutrient cycling and algae populations.
  • Conservation Status:

Lake Natron 

  • Lake Natron is a salt lake located on the border between Tanzania and Kenya, part of the eastern branch of the Rift Valley.
    • The Great Rift Valley is a massive geological formation that stretches around 6,400 kilometers from northern Syria to central Mozambique in East Africa.
    • The valley is home to the Jordan River, which flows through the Jordan Valley and eventually empties into the Dead Sea on the border between Israel and Jordan.
  • Lake Natron Basin was included in the Ramsar List in 2001, recognizing Lake Natron as an internationally significant wetland under Article 2 of the Ramsar Convention.
  • It has a unique composition of warm waters and salt, caustic soda, and magnesite deposits.
  • Lake Natron's alkaline waters support a thriving ecosystem of salt marshes, freshwater wetlands, flamingos and other wetland birds, tilapia and the algae on which large flocks of flamingos feed.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q. Consider the following fauna: (2023)

  1. Lion-tailed Macaque
  2. Malabar Civet
  3. Sambar Deer

How many of the above are generally nocturnal or most active after sunset?

(a) Only one

(b) Only two

(c) All three

(d) None

Ans: (a)

Important Facts For Prelims

Kozhikode, UNESCO’s City of Literature

Source: HT

Why in News?

Recently, UNESCO recognised Kozhikode as the ‘City of Literature’ under the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN).

What is the UNESCO Creative Cities Network?

  • About:
    • UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) was created in 2004.
    • The network covers seven creative fields namely Crafts and Folk Art, Design, Film, Gastronomy, Literature, Media Arts and Music.
    • The annual conference of mayors and other stakeholders of network cities offers a unique occasion to strengthen ties between creative cities from across the world.
    • In 2024, the conference will be held in July in Braga, Portugal.
  • Objective:
    • In 2024, 350 cities make up this network which aims towards a common objective of placing creativity and cultural industries at the heart of their development plans at the local level and cooperating actively at the international level.
    • The UNESCO Creative Cities aims to achieve Sustainable Development Goals 11 through innovative thinking and action to benefit communities at the urban level.
  • Significance:
    • UNESCO Creative Cities pledge to share best practices and develop partnerships involving public and private sectors as well as civil society to strengthen the creation, production, and distribution of cultural activities.

Which are Indian Cities in UCCN?

  • Kozhikode:
    • Kozhikode hosts many promiment personalities of Kerala's literary and cultural world, leading media houses, several libraries (over 500 libraries) and has also produced many films and theatre professionals over the years.
    • The first Malayalam novel Kundalatha was written by Appu Nedungadi in Kozhikode in 1887
    • Many renowned writers like S. K. Pottekkatt, Thikkodiyan and P. Valsala Sanjayan, along with poets, scholars, and publishers have contributed to the diversity and vibrancy of Malayalam literature and culture.
  • Other Indian cities in the UCCN:
    • Jaipur: Crafts and Folk Arts (2015),
    • Varanasi: Creative City of Music (2015),
    • Chennai: Creative City of Music (2017),
    • Mumbai: Film (2019),
    • Hyderabad: Gastronomy (2019), and
    • Srinagar: Crafts and Folk Art (2021).

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q1. Recently, the manuscripts of which one of the following have been included in the UNESCO’s Memory of World Register? (2008)

(a) Abhidhamma Pitaka

(b) Mahabharata

(c) Ramayana

(d) Rig-Veda

Ans: (d)

Q2. Out of all the Biosphere Reserves in India, four have been recognized on the World Network by UNESCO. Which one of the following is not one of them? (2008)

(a) Gulf of Mannar

(b) Kanchenjunga

(c) Nanda Devi

(d) Sunderbans

Ans: (b)

Rapid Fire

Rise of India’s External Debt

Source: TH

India's External debt increased by USD 39.7 billion from March 2023 to reach USD 663.8 billion as of end-March 2024.

  • External Debt is money borrowed from a source outside the country, which needs to be repaid in the borrowed currency.
    • It can be obtained from foreign commercial banks, international financial institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank, and from foreign governments.
  • The external debt-to-GDP ratio declined from 19.0% at end-March 2023 to 18.7% at end-March 2024.
  • There was a USD 45.6 billion increase in long-term debt (maturing in over a year) to reach USD 541.2 billion in March 2024.
    • Proportion of short-term debt (maturing in up to a year) decreased from 20.6% to 18.5%.
    • The ratio of short-term debt to forex reserves declined from 22.2% to 19%.
  • India's external debt as of March 2024 was primarily in US Dollars (53.8%), followed by Indian rupees (31.5%), yen (5.8%), SDR (5.4%), and euro (2.8%).
    • There was an increase in debt of both government and non-government sectors.
  • Non-financial corporations held the highest share of outstanding debt (37.4%) followed by deposit-taking corporations (except the central bank)( 28.1%), general government (22.4%) and other financial corporations (7.3%).
  • Loans constitute 33.4% of external debt, followed by currency and deposits (23.3%), trade credit and advances (17.9%), and debt securities (17.3%).

Read more: Debt Sustainability and Exchange Rate Management

Rapid Fire

Honours to India's Hansa Mehta

Source: ET

Recently, the President of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) honoured Hansa Mehta on the International Day for Women in Diplomacy (24 June).

  • This day honors and acknowledges the contributions and accomplishments of women in the realm of diplomacy.

Hansa Mehta:

  • She was a prominent Indian scholar, educator, social reformer, writer and diplomat from India.
  • She was born on 3rd July 1897 and was a champion of women's rights.
  • Mehta played a pivotal role in revising the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) to include gender-inclusive language.
    • She successfully changed the phrase, “All men are born free and equal,” to “All human beings are born free and equal” in Article 1 of the UDHR.
  • As the President of All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in 1946, she led the drafting of the "Indian Women's Charter of Rights", which demanded gender equality, civil rights and justice for women in India.
  • She was also part of the Constituent Assembly of India, a member of its Advisory Committee and sub-Committee on Fundamental Rights.
  • She was the only other female delegate, apart from Eleanor Roosevelt to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

Read more: Empowering Women, Elevating India

Rapid Fire

India Africa Postal Leaders Meet

Source: PIB

Recently, with the aim of strengthening ties among the administrations of African countries and India in the postal sector, the ‘India Africa Postal Leaders Meet’ was organised in India.

Read more: India-Africa Partnership: Achievements, Challenges, and Roadmap 2030

Rapid Fire

Ladakh Achieves Full Functional Literacy

Source: PIB

Recently the Union Territory (UT) of Ladakh has been declared to achieve Full Functional Literacy under the ULLAS-Nav Bharat Saksharta Karyakram after having achieved over 97% literacy.

  • Functional literacy refers to a person's ability to effectively engage in activities that require reading, writing and calculation for personal and community development.
    • Basic literacy focuses majorly on the acquisition of 3Rs, i.e. reading, writing and arithmetic skills.

ULLAS-Nav Bharat Saksharta Karyakram or New India Literacy Programme (NILP):

Read more: Akhil Bharatiya Shiksha Samagam and ULLAS Initiative, National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

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