Comptroller and Auditor General of India

For Prelims: Comptroller and Auditor General, Supreme Court, Election Commission, Union Public Service Commission, President of India, Consolidated Fund of India,  International Atomic Energy Agency 

For Mains: Significance of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, Financial Integrity and Accountability.  

Source: IE 

Why in News?

K Sanjay Murthy has been appointed as the new Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India, succeeding Girish Chandra Murmu.  

What are the Key Facts About the Comptroller and Auditor General? 

• About: The CAG of India, as per Article 148 of the Constitution, heads the Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IA-AD). He/she is responsible for safeguarding the public purse and overseeing the financial system at both the central and state levels.  
  • The CAG upholds the Constitution and parliamentary laws in financial administration and is considered one of the key pillars of India's democratic system, alongside the Supreme Court, Election Commission, and Union Public Service Commission. 
  • CAG of India is governed by the Comptroller and Auditor-General's (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971, with significant amendments in 1976, 1984, and 1987. 
• Appointment and Term: The CAG of India is appointed by the President of India by a warrant under his hand and seal. The officeholder serves a term of six years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier. 
  • The CAG takes an oath to uphold the Constitution and perform duties impartially, without fear or favour. 
  • CAG removal is possible by the President on the same grounds and process as a Supreme Court judge, requiring a special majority resolution in both Houses of Parliament for proven misbehaviour or incapacity. 
  • CAG can resign any time from his office by addressing the resignation letter to the president.  
• Independence: The CAG can only be removed by the President following a constitutional procedure, not at the President's pleasure. 
  • The CAG is ineligible for any further office under the Government of India or any state after leaving office. 
  • The Parliament determines the CAG’s salary, which is equal to that of a Supreme Court judge. 
  • The President, in consultation with the CAG, prescribes the service conditions for CAG’s staff and administrative powers. 
  • The CAG’s administrative expenses, including salaries, allowances, and pensions, are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India, not subject to Parliamentary vote. 
  • No minister can represent the CAG in Parliament or take responsibility for his actions. 
• Duties and Powers: The CAG audits the accounts related to the expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India and state funds. 
  • It also audits accounts of government corporations, public sector undertakings, and bodies substantially funded by the government. 
  • The CAG provides a certificate on the net proceeds of taxes and duties, and audits transactions related to debt, advances, and suspense accounts. 
  • The CAG submits audit reports to the President, who places them before Parliament. These reports are then examined by the Public Accounts Committee. 
• Role: The CAG acts as an agent of Parliament, ensuring that public money is spent legally and efficiently.  
  • Reviews whether money disbursed was legally available and applied correctly and whether expenditure conforms to the governing authority. 
  • The CAG is responsible for safeguarding the taxpayers' money and ensuring that it is spent in accordance with the law and for its intended purposes. 
  • In addition to legal and regulatory audits, the CAG can conduct propriety audits, that is, he can assess the wisdom, faithfulness, and economy of government expenditure, and comment on wastefulness and extravagance. 
    • Unlike legal and regulatory audits, which are obligatory, propriety audits are discretionary. 
  • The CAG in India does not have control over the issuance of funds and performs the role of Auditor-General only, unlike the CAG in Britain, which also functions as a Comptroller. 
• International Audits:  
  • IAEA (2022-2027): CAG is the External Auditor for the International Atomic Energy Agency, promoting the safe use of nuclear technologies. 
  • FAO (2020-2025): CAG audits the Food and Agriculture Organization, working towards global food security. 

Constitutional Provisions Regarding CAG of India

Provision	Description
Article 148	Deals with the appointment, oath, and conditions of service of the CAG of India.
Article 149	Specifies the duties and powers of the CAG of India.
Article 150	States that the accounts of the Union and States must be kept in a form prescribed by the President on the advice of the CAG.
Article 151	Requires the CAG’s reports on Union accounts to be submitted to the President and laid before Parliament; state reports to be submitted to the Governor and laid before the State Legislature.
Article 279	Provides that the CAG certifies the calculation of "net proceeds" and its certificate is final.
Third Schedule	Section IV prescribes the oath or affirmation to be made by the Judges of the Supreme Court and the CAG upon assuming office.
Sixth Schedule	Specifies that accounts of District or Regional Councils should be kept in a form prescribed by the CAG and audited accordingly. Reports are to be submitted to the Governor for laying before the Council.

How Does the CAG Strengthen Democracy? 

• Ensuring Accountability: Key principles of India’s democratic framework are accountability, citizen engagement, and decentralization. As governance becomes more complex, these principles must be upheld through robust mechanisms. 
  • The CAG of India ensures government accountability in public fund usage, preventing misuse of taxpayer money and promoting governance in citizens' best interests, which is essential in a democracy. 
• Strengthening Local Governance:  CAG supports Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies through capacity building and guidance. 
  • Through Annual Technical Inspection Reports (ATIR), it assesses local government performance in service delivery. To address the shortage of skilled accountants, the CAG, in collaboration with the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI), offers online courses. 
• Safeguarding Separation of Powers: Audits ensure the executive’s financial activities align with legislative intent, maintaining a balance of power. 
• Citizen-Centric Approach: By placing citizens at the heart of audit processes, the CAG ensures that the implementation of government programs reflects the aspirations of the people. 
  • Citizen feedback helps the CAG identify high-risk areas where mismanagement may occur, improving the focus and effectiveness of audits. 

What Major Scandals Has the CAG Uncovered? 

• The CAG has been instrumental in exposing several high-profile cases of corruption and financial irregularities. 
  • 2G Spectrum Allocation Scam: CAG highlighted a loss of Rs 1.76 lakh crore. 
    • A report by the CAG of India revealed that the Indian government allocated 2G spectrum licenses at significantly undervalued prices, bypassing free and fair auctions. 
  • Coal Mine Allocation Scam: CAG estimated wrongful gains of Rs 1.85 lakh crore. 
    • The Coal Scam, popularly known as Coalgate, refers to the irregular and potentially illegal allocation of coal blocks from 2004 to 2009, bypassing competitive bidding despite the government's authority to do so. 
  • Fodder Scam: CAG uncovered fraudulent withdrawals worth Rs 940 crore. 
    • The Fodder Scam, or Chaara Ghotala, involved financial irregularities in Bihar's Animal Husbandry Department between 1985 and 1995. 

What are the Criticisms Regarding the Functioning of the CAG in India? 

• Declining Number of Reports Tabled: The number of audit reports tabled by the CAG in Parliament has declined significantly, from 53 in 2015 to just 18 in 2023, raises concerns about reduced oversight and transparency in government spending, potentially hindering the identification of financial irregularities. 
  • Additionally, the CAG audits many companies and government bodies directly, but evaluates only a few each year, leaving many audits pending. 
• Post-Facto Audits: The CAG's auditing function is largely post-facto, meaning that audits occur after government expenditures have been made, rather than being involved in decision-making processes upfront.  
  • This approach limits the CAG’s ability to prevent financial mismanagement or irregularities before they occur.  
  • Essentially, the CAG performs a postmortem of financial transactions. While post-facto audits are useful for identifying issues, they do not contribute to proactive financial oversight. 
• Limited Importance of the CAG’s Function: Auditors focus on auditing, not administration, making their function necessary but limited in perspective and usefulness. Additionally, CAG does not have a role in pre-auditing before the issuance of the budget. 
• Insufficient Economic Expertise: Critics argue that the CAG lacks sufficient economic expertise, especially when auditing complex sectors like natural resources. 
  • The Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IA&AD) has seen a significant decline in staffing, from 48,253 in 2013-14 to 41,675 in 2021-22. This reduction may affect the CAG’s ability to conduct thorough audits, potentially leading to gaps in scrutiny and hindering transparency and accountability. 
• Delay in Reporting: There are often delays in the submission of documents to the CAG and in the tabling of CAG reports in Parliament, which can hinder timely accountability. 

What Reforms are Needed for CAG? 

• Amendments to the CAG Act: The CAG Act of 1971 should be amended to reflect modern governance needs and improve accountability. 
• Selection Process: Establish a collegium comprising the President, Chief Justice of India, Prime minister, and Leader of Opposition for appointing the CAG.  
  • This approach ensures a more impartial and legitimate selection process, promoting fairness and transparency. 
• Adaptation to New Challenges: The CAG needs to adapt to auditing new areas such as climate change and critical technologies. This adaptation is crucial for ensuring comprehensive oversight and accountability in these emerging sectors. 
• Capacity Building: Enhance the training and capacity of CAG staff, especially in specialised areas like natural resources, technology, and complex economic sectors, to improve the quality of audits. 
• Feedback Mechanism: Establish a robust feedback mechanism to address the concerns and suggestions of audited entities, ensuring that audits are constructive and lead to improvements. 

Conclusion 

The CAG stands as a watchdog of financial propriety and a guardian of democratic accountability. While it has made significant strides in strengthening governance and exposing corruption, there is room for further reforms to ensure its relevance in a rapidly evolving economic and political landscape. By enhancing its mandate and modernizing its operations, the CAG can continue to play a pivotal role in safeguarding India’s democracy and public trust. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Examine the role of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India in safeguarding public financial accountability. How do constitutional provisions empower the CAG?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. In India, other than ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for intended purpose, what is the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)? (2012)

1. CAG exercises exchequer control on behalf of the Parliament when the President of India declares national emergency/financial emergency
2. CAG reports on the execution of projects or programmes by the ministries are discussed by the Public Accounts Committee.
3. Information from CAG reports can be used by investigating agencies to press charges against those who have violated the law while managing public finances.
4. While dealing with the audit and accounting of government companies, CAG has certain judicial powers for prosecuting those who violate the law.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1, 3 and 4 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) 2 and 3 only 
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 

Ans: C

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Mains

Q1: “The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) has a very vital role to play.” Explain how this is reflected in the method and terms of his appointment as well as the range of powers he can exercise. (2018) 

Q2: Exercise of CAG’s powers in relation to the accounts of the Union and the States is derived from Article 149 of the Indian Constitution. Discuss whether audit of the Government’s policy implementation could amount to overstepping its own (CAG) jurisdiction.(2016)

Raja Raja I and Chola Administration

For Prelims: Raja Raja Chola I, Thiruvalangadu Inscription, Battle of Kandalur Salai, Senur Inscription, Rajaraja Mandalam, Mummudi Chola, Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, Chalukyas, Nagapattinam, Local Self-Government, Brihadeshwara Temple, Dravidian Temple Architecture, UNESCO, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Airavateshvara Temple, Dakshina Meru, Mural Paintings, Bharatanatyam, Nataraja Statue, Ananda Tandava.  

For Mains: Contribution of Chola dynasty in Indian history, Art & Architecture of Chola dynasty. 

Source: TH 

Why in News?  

Recently, the birth anniversary of Chola emperor Raja Raja Chola I was celebrated during the Sadhaya Vizha festival (mid-October to mid-November) in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.  

• He was born as Arulmozhi Varman in 947 CE and adopted the title "Rajaraja," meaning "King among Kings". 

What are Key Facts About Rajaraja Chola I? 

• About: Rajaraja Chola I was the third child of Parantaka Chola II and Vanavan Mahadevi. 
  • The Thiruvalangadu inscription credits Uttama Chola (predecessor) with appointing Arunmozhi (Rajaraja I) as his successor, recognising his extraordinary potential. 
  • He ruled from 985 to 1014 CE and was marked by military prowess and profound administrative vision. 
• Notable Military Conquests: 
  • Battle of Kandalur Salai (988 CE): It was a naval battle against the Cheras (central and northern Kerala) at Kandalur in Kerala. 
    • It was the first military achievement of King Rajaraja I and resulted in the destruction of Chera naval forces and ports. 
  • Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas: According to the Senur inscription (Tamil Nadu), Rajaraja Chola I destroyed the Pandya capital Madurai, and conquered Kollam. 
    • After victory, he took the title "Pandya Kulashani" (thunderbolt to the Pandyas) and renamed the region “Rajaraja Mandalam.”  
    • He also adopted the title "Mummudi Chola" (Chola who wears the three crowns) to signify his dominance over the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras. 
  • Victory in Sri Lanka (993 CE): Rajaraja Chola I invaded Sri Lanka in 993 CE and the northern half of Sri Lanka was captured and established Jananathamangalam as the provincial capital. 
    • The conquest was completed under his son Rajendra Chola I in 1017. 
  • Conflict with the Chalukyas: He defeated the Chalukyas in Karnataka, annexing regions like Gangavadi and Nolambapadi.  
    • He fostered alliances through strategic marriages, such as his daughter Kundavai's union with Vimaladitya of Vengi. 
• Chola Navy: Rajaraja Chola I strengthened the navy, earning the Bay of Bengal the title "Chola Lake." 
  • Nagapattinam (TN) served as the main port, supporting successful campaigns in Sri Lanka and the Maldives. 
• Administration: Replaced hereditary lords with dependent officials and exercised direct control over provinces. 
  • He strengthened the system of local self-government and installed a system of audit and control through which the public bodies were kept under watch.  
• Art & Culture: Rajaraja Chola I was a dedicated Shaivite, but he also dedicated several temples to Lord Vishnu.  
  • In 1010 CE, Rajaraja Chola I built the grand Brihadeshwara temple (Rajarajeshwaram temple) at Thanjavur. It is dedicated to lord Shiva and a perfect example of Dravidian temple architecture. 
    • The temple is part of the UNESCO world heritage and is known as one of the “Great Living Chola Temples” with the other two being the Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavateshvara temple. 
  • An important piece of Chola sculpture was the sculpture of Nataraja in the Tandava dance posture. 
• Coinage: Rajaraja Chola I introduced new coins featuring a standing king on one side and a seated goddess on the other, replacing the old tiger-emblem coins. 
  • His coins were also copied by the kings of Sri Lanka.

Note:

The Chola Empire was founded by Vijayalaya who led to the rise of the mighty Cholas by defeating the Pallavas.  

• The reign of the Cholas (9th-13th Century) stretched over for over five long centuries until the 13th century. 

 

What are Key Facts About the Chola Administration? 

• Centralised Governance: At the top of the Chola administrative structure was the king whose powers were balanced by a council of ministers. 
  • The Central Government under the king had a structured council with higher officials (Peruntaram) and lower officials (Siruntaram). 
• Provincial Administration: The Chola Empire was divided into nine provinces, also called Mandalams. 
  • The Mandalams were further subdivided into Kottams or Valanadus, which were further divided into Nadus (districts) and then into Urs (villages).  
• Revenue System: The land revenue was the primary source of income with a general rate of 1/6th of the land yield collected as tax, either in cash, kind, or both. 
  • The Chola administration also levied taxes on customs, tolls, mines, ports, forests, and salt pans. Professional and house taxes were also collected. 
• Local Administration: The most distinctive feature of the Chola administration was its local governance system, which granted substantial autonomy to local units like Nadus and Villages.  
  • The Nadu was an important administrative unit, with its own assembly, and was headed by the Nattar, while the council of Nattars was called the Nattavai. 
    • At the village level, the Grama Sabha was responsible for maintaining public infrastructure and regulating markets. 
  • The village assemblies were assisted by various Variyams (committees) responsible for different aspects of local governance.  
• Trade under the Chola Dynasty: 
  • Local Trade: The Chola Empire saw significant development in internal trade, facilitated by mercantile corporations and organized guilds.  
    • These guilds, often referred to as "nanadesis", were powerful and autonomous bodies of merchants. 
    • In large trade centers such as Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram, local merchant organizations called "nagaram" helped coordinate trade and market activities.   
  • Maritime Trade: Chola dynasty established trade relations with West Asia, China, and Southeast Asia.  
    • They were engaged in the lucrative trade of spices, precious stones, textiles, and other goods that were in demand across Asia. 

What are the Key Facts About the Brihadisvara Temple? 

• About: The temple, built by Rajaraja I, was inaugurated in his 19th year (1003-1004 CE) and consecrated in his 25th year (1009-1010 CE). 
• Architectural Significance: It exemplifies the pure form of Dravidian temple design. 
• Architecture:  
  • Design: Features a massive colonnaded prakara (enclosure) with sub-shrines dedicated to the eight guardian deities (ashtadikpalas). 
  • Gopuram: Known as Rajarajantiruvasal, it serves as the grand gateway to the temple complex. 
  • Circumambulatory Path: A pathway surrounds the sanctum, allowing devotees to perform pradakshina (circumambulation) around the sacred shivlinga. 
• Artistic Elements:  
  • Mural Paintings: The temple walls are adorned with expansive and exquisite mural paintings, including 81 of the 108 karanas (dance poses) from Bharatanatyam. 
    • A Mural depicting Raja Raja I and his guru Karuvuruvar found in the Brihadisvara temple, Tamil Nadu. 
  • Inscriptions: It contains inscriptions detailing Rajaraja Chola I's military achievements, temple grants, and administrative orders. 

What are the Key Facts About the Nataraja Statue? 

• About: The Nataraja statue symbolizes Lord Shiva as the cosmic dancer, embodying the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe. 
• Historical Origin: The earliest sculptures of Nataraja date back to the 5th century CE. 
  • The iconic and world-famous form evolved during the Chola dynasty's reign (9th–13th century CE), showcasing their artistic and cultural advancements. 
• Cosmic Dance: Known as Ananda Tandava (Dance of Bliss), it represents the eternal rhythm of the universe, the cycle of creation and destruction, and the perpetual flow of time. 
• Key Symbolic Features:  
  • Flaming Halo (Prabhamandala): Represents the cosmos and the cycle of time, destruction, and renewal. 
  • Damaru (Upper Right Hand): The hand drum symbolizes the first sound of creation and the rhythm of the universe. 
  • Agni (Upper Left Hand): The flame signifies destruction, marking the end of the cosmic cycle. 
  • Abhayamudra (Lower Right Hand): A gesture of reassurance and protection, dispelling fear. 
  • Left-Hand Gesture: Points to the raised left foot, symbolizing refuge and liberation for the troubled soul. 
  • Apasmara Purusha: The dwarf figure under Shiva’s right foot represents ignorance or illusion (maya) that leads humans astray. 
  • Raised Left Foot: Represents grace and the path to salvation. 

• Chola Contributions: The Chola bronzes are renowned for their finesse, intricate detailing, and spiritual symbolism. 
  • It was crafted in bronze, showcasing the expertise of Chola-era metallurgists and artists. 
• Recognition: A replica of the Nataraja statue stands outside CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), symbolizing the cosmic dance of particles in physics. 

Maritime Activity Under the Chola Rule 

• Naval Power: The Cholas built a powerful navy that extended to distant shores to conquer territories, promoting mercantile interests. 
• Ports: Key ports include Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Kancheepuram, Kulachal, and Thootukodi. 
• Invasion of Southeast Asia: King Rajendra I's invasion of the Sailendra Empire (Southeast Asia) brought the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra under Chola control. 
  • The Cholas thwarted Chinese attempts to disrupt their trade with Southeast Asia. 
• Shipbuilding: Kappal Sattiram, a treatise on shipbuilding, highlights their advanced maritime technology. 

Conclusion 

• Rajaraja Chola I's reign marked a significant era in military, cultural, and maritime advancements. His contributions in administration, temple architecture, and naval power, along with the Chola maritime empire's expansion, showcase the empire's profound influence on South Asia and beyond, especially in fostering trade and cultural exchanges. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Discuss the Chola administration and aspects of its local administration.

 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements: 

1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.
4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it 
5. was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building. 

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 

(b) 2 and 3 only 

(c) 1 and 4  

(d) 2, 3 and 4 

Ans: (c)

Q. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the (2012)

(a) three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent 

(b) three main linguistic divisions into which the  

languages of India can be classified 

(c) three main styles of Indian temple architecture 

(d) three main musical Gharanas prevalent in India 

Ans: (c)

Q. India maintained its early cultural contacts and trade links with Southeast Asia across the Bay of Bengal. For this pre-eminence of early maritime history of Bay of Bengal, which of the following could be the most convincing explanation/explanations? (2011)

(a) As compared to other countries, India had a better ship building technology in ancient and medieval times 

(b) The rulers of southern India always patronized traders, Brahmin priests and Buddhist monks in this context 

(c) Monsoon winds across the Bay of Bengal facilitated sea voyages 

(d) Both (a) and (b) are convincing explanations in this context 

Ans: (d)

Mains

Q: (a) Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in the early Indian inscriptions.  

(b) Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (2013)

Q. Indian philosophy and tradition played a significant role in conceiving and shaping the monuments and their art in India. Discuss. (2020)

16th Anniversary of 26/11 Attacks

For Prelims: Indian Navy, Coast Guard, Territorial Water, Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, 1967 (UAPA), Intelligence Bureau, National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act, 2008, National Security Guard (NSG), FATF. 

For Mains`: Strengthening of counter-terrorism measures. 

Source: TOI 

Why in News?

On 26^th November 2008, Lashkar-e-Taiba, a Pakistan-based terror group, carried out attacks at the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, Nariman House, Oberoi Trident, and Chhatrapati Shivaji Railway Station in Mumbai. 

• The attacks revealed significant vulnerabilities in India’s security infrastructure, prompting urgent reforms in counter-terrorism measures. 

What were Indian Security Vulnerabilities Exposed by 26/11 Attacks? 

• Intelligence Failures: The failure to share intelligence in real-time between various security agencies allowed the terrorists to operate undetected for a significant period before the attack. 
• Maritime Security:  
  • Porous Coastal Borders: The attackers hijacked an Indian fishing trawler after traveling on a Pakistani-flagged cargo ship, then used inflatable boats to land on Indian shores without raising suspicion. 
  • Lack of Coordination: The lack of clear command and control structures among Indian Navy, Coast Guard, Marine Police led to inefficiencies in securing the coastal areas, making them vulnerable to exploitation. 
• Digital Vulnerabilities: India’s inability to counter digital propaganda and online radicalisation led to local support through logistical assistance. 
• Lack of Specialised Training: India’s security forces were not adequately trained to handle the new type of urban terror attack with multiple sites targeted simultaneously as seen in 26/11.  
• Slow Response: The delayed response from security forces, combined with a lack of rapid deployment and tactical coordination, allowed the terrorists to hold out for several hours.  
• Inadequate Cyber Security Measures: The 26/11 attackers used advanced communication tools, including satellite phones, to stay in constant contact with their handlers in Pakistan. 

What Steps Were Taken to Strengthen Security after 26/11 Attacks? 

• Maritime Security Revamp: The Indian Navy was made responsible for overall maritime security, while the Indian Coast Guard managed territorial waters and coordinated with new marine police stations along the coastline. 
  • The Indian Navy established the Sagar Prahari Bal to enhance coastal patrolling and rapid response capabilities. 
  • Regular coastal security exercises are conducted across all states, in collaboration with the Coast Guard, State and Central Government agencies for improving coordination. 
  • All vessels longer than 20 meters were made to install the Automatic Identification System (AIS) to transmit identification and other critical information. 
• Intelligence Coordination: The Intelligence Bureau's Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) was strengthened to improve the coordination of intelligence sharing among central agencies, the armed forces, and state police.  
  • MAC’s charter was expanded to cover new areas, such as analysing and addressing radicalisation and terrorism networks more effectively. 
• Institutional Measures: 
  • National Counter-Terrorism Centre (NCTC) was established to draw up plans and coordinate action for counter-terrorism with other stake holders including anti-terrorist organisations in states. 
  • Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems (CCTNS) was started to inter-link all police stations under a common application software for the purpose of investigation, data analytics, research, and policy making. 
  • National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID) is an integrated IT platform to help access data gathered from various databases such as credit and debit cards, tax, telecom, immigration, airlines and railway tickets, passports, driving licenses among others to tackle crime and terror threats in the country. 
• Legal Reforms: The Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, 1967 (UAPA) was amended to broaden the definition of terrorism to take more proactive steps against terrorist activities. 
  • The National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act, 2008 was passed to create a federal investigation agency with the authority to handle terrorism cases across states. 
• Modernisation of Police Forces: The Ministry of Home Affairs allocated more funds to state governments to upgrade police stations, equip them with modern technology, train officers for modern challenges like terrorism, and provide better weapons. 
  • Emphasis was given to the creation of crack commando teams among all police forces.  
  • The National Security Guard (NSG) established four regional hubs across the country at Chennai, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Mumbai for rapid deployment. 
• International Cooperation: The biggest impact of the 26/11 attacks was the willingness of the West, especially the US, to cooperate with India on matters of security. 
  • The US provided real-time information during the attacks and helped gather prosecutable evidence through the FBI that helped isolate Pakistan globally. 
  • In 2018, global pressure led to Pakistan being placed on the FATF grey list, forcing action against terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Muhammad (JeM). 
• Sensitisation Campaigns: These drives aim to sensitise local populations about the risks posed by maritime threats and to encourage them to report suspicious activities. 

What are the Persistent Lacunas in Indian Coastal Security? 

• Challenge of Monitoring: India’s 7517 km-long coastline, including the mainland (5423 km) and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (2094 km).  
  • The vast coastline, with thousands of fishing boats and dhows, makes monitoring and patrolling potential threats challenging. 
• Lack of Comprehensive Coverage: The provision to install Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) for boats over 20 meters in length, limits the scope of maritime surveillance, especially when many smaller boats (under 20 meters) could be used for illegal activities such as smuggling or infiltration. 
• Diverse Threat Landscape: The varied nature of threats (Terror Attacks, Smuggling, and Illegal Migration) highlights the complexity of the security challenges. 
  • Migrants, particularly from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, may pose security risks, either inadvertently or deliberately. 
• Over-reliance on Local Communities: Fishermen are crucial for coastal security, but relying solely on them for intelligence is risky due to potential non-cooperation from fear, lack of awareness, or distrust. 
• Poor Infrastructure: State police forces continue to remain ill-equipped and poorly trained with continued political interference hampering overall coordination. 

Way Forward 

• Deterrence and Offensive Strategies: India’s recent responses to cross-border terrorism, including surgical strikes and airstrikes should be institutionalised as part of India’s long-term counterterrorism policy, aiming to deter terrorism by demonstrating the country's resolve to respond decisively. 
• Multi-Agency Training and Exercises: The NSG’s model of multi-agency exercises, where various security forces train together, should be scaled up nationwide.  
  • These exercises should include local law enforcement, paramilitary forces, and intelligence agencies to ensure all parties are well-prepared for coordinated action during attacks. 
• Coordination with Specialised Forces: The local police must maintain a close working relationship with national counterterrorism units such as the NSG to ensure smooth coordination in the event of an attack. 
• Empowering Decision-Makers: Decision-makers at various levels (from local police to national security agencies) should be empowered with greater discretion to act quickly and decisively during emergencies. 
• Urban Disaster Management Plans: Cities need to have disaster management plans that focus not only on natural disasters but also on man-made threats such as terrorist attacks. 
• Building Cybersecurity Expertise: Multi-disciplinary training in cyber and physical security should be integrated. 
• Establishing 'Awake Cells': Community-based 'Awake Cells,' made up of youth and citizens, can bridge the gap between the public and security agencies by reporting suspicious activities and providing real-time intelligence. 

Drishti Mains Question:

What reforms were introduced in India's security apparatus post the 26/11 attacks to enhance counter-terrorism capabilities? 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Mains

Q. The scourge of terrorism is a grave challenge to national security. What solutions do you suggest to curb this growing menace? What are the major sources of terrorist funding? (2017) 

Q. Religious indoctrination via digital media has resulted in Indian youth joining ISIS. What is ISIS and its mission? How can ISIS be dangerous to the internal security of our country? (2015) 

Q. Cyber warfare is considered by some defence analysts to be a larger threat than even Al Qaeda or terrorism. What do you understand by Cyber warfare? Outline the cyber threats which India is vulnerable to and bring out the state of the country’s preparedness to deal with the same. (2013)

Discrepancies in Satellite Data on Farm Fires

For Prelims: Air quality, Commission for Air Quality Management, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Indian Space Research Organisation,  INSAT-3DR, INSAT-3DS, Particulate matter 

For Mains: Satellite Technology in Environmental Monitoring, Government Initiatives to Tackle Air Pollution, Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) and its Effectiveness 

Source: IE 

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court (SC) of India highlighted discrepancies in farm fire data collected by satellites, which is provided by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM). This data is crucial for monitoring air quality, especially in regions like Delhi, Punjab and Haryana.  

• In response, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) acknowledged gaps in the existing satellite data and committed to developing in-house algorithms to analyze data on Farm Fires more accurately. 

What are the Issues with Current Satellite Data on Farm Fires? 

• Accuracy of Data: The data from National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) polar-orbiting satellites, is insufficient for accurately counting farm fires.  
  • This is mainly due to their limited observation window period over the regions of Haryana and Punjab. 
  • The current satellites, including India’s INSAT-3DR provide low-resolution images that are inadequate for accurately counting farm fires.  
    • This issue is compounded by the lack of calibration and validation of these data sets specifically over India. 
  • Climatic conditions, particularly cloud cover and water vapor, can obstruct satellite sensors, hindering accurate readings and data acquisition.  
    • Additionally, seasonal changes and time-of-day discrepancies affect the effectiveness of fire detection thresholds, creating hurdles for consistent monitoring. 
• Evasion by Farmers: Farmers are reportedly timing their stubble burning activities to avoid satellite detection. They often conduct burns after the satellites have passed the region, knowing the observation windows.  
  • This results in an undercount of farm fires in the official data. This raises concerns about the accuracy of the data used by government agencies for monitoring farm fires. 
• Inconsistent Reporting: Despite concerns raised by the SC, the CAQM has not yet made necessary data adjustments public, leading to questions about transparency and the real scope of the stubble-burning issue. 

What is the Need for Accurate Farm Fire Data in India? 

• Impact on Air Quality: Farm fires, particularly in states like Punjab and Haryana, contribute to severe air pollution in the National Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining areas, especially during the winter months. 
• Better Policy Planning: Accurate data on farm fires can help government agencies take timely actions to mitigate pollution, regulate farming practices, and implement crop residue management strategies. 
  • Accurate farm fire data can assist in identifying regions with high instances of crop burning, which could prompt interventions such as promoting alternatives to stubble burning or providing incentives for sustainable farming practices. 
• Health Risks: The fine particulate matter (PM2.5) released by farm fires is a major health hazard. People in areas affected by high pollution levels experience respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, and other health issues.  
  • Reliable data helps health officials predict and mitigate these risks by coordinating actions across regions. 
• ISRO's Efforts to Improve Satellite Monitoring: The ISRO has acknowledged that current data processing algorithms are not suited for accurate fire detection in the Punjab and Haryana regions.  
  • They are working on developing in-house algorithms to analyze foreign satellite data more effectively. 
  • ISRO aims to upgrade its satellite, INSAT-3DS, by February 2025 to improve its ability to detect farm fires with greater accuracy. 
  • ISRO is working on improving satellite capabilities with the upcoming GISAT-1, but issues with the satellite launch have delayed progress.  
    • The use of satellites like RESOURCESAT-2A, with higher resolution imaging, could provide better monitoring of farm fires and their impact on air quality. 

What are Farm fires? 

• About: Farm fires usually refer to deliberate fires set on agricultural fields, primarily after the harvest season to clear crop residue, particularly in regions practicing stubble burning.  
  • These fires often involve burning leftover straw, stubble, or crop residues to prepare fields for the next planting season quickly.  
  • However, farm fires can also occur accidentally due to machinery malfunctions or other unintended causes.  
• Concerns Regarding Farm Fires: Farm fires can be a cost-effective and time-saving method for farmers, it contributes significantly to air pollution, emitting large amounts of smoke, particulate matter, and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. 
  • Burning crop residues leads to the loss of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur, which are vital for soil fertility. 
• Crop Residue Management(CRM): CRM Options can be classified as in-situ and ex-situ management options. 

In-Situ Crop Residue Managemen ( residues are handled directly in the field)	Ex-Situ Crop Residue Management (removing the residues from the field and using them for other purposes)
Mulching: Leaves crop residue on the soil surface, protecting it from erosion and retaining moisture.  Suppresses weeds and enriches the soil with nutrients.	Biomass Power Generation: Burning crop residues to produce electricity or heat, reducing dependency on traditional fuels.
No-Till Farming: Seeds are planted directly into the soil without disturbing the crop residue.  It helps conserve moisture and reduces soil erosion.	Animal Feed: Residues, especially from cereal crops, can be baled and used as animal fodder.
Strip-Till Farming:  Involves tilling narrow strips where seeds are planted, leaving crop residue on the soil surface.  Reduces soil disturbance and promotes a healthy environment for seed germination.	Composting: Crop residues are mixed with other organic materials to create nutrient-rich compost that improves soil health.
Crop Rotation: Alternating crops each season to reduce soil depletion and improve soil health.	Industrial Uses: Crop residues can be converted into products like paper, textiles, and building materials.

What is the Commission for Air Quality Management? 

• About: The CAQM in the National Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining areas was established through an ordinance in 2020, later replaced by the The Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR & Adjoining Areas Act, 2021.  
  • Its main objective is to address air pollution through better coordination, research, and resolution of pollution-related problems, particularly in Delhi and surrounding states. 
  • The CAQM replaced the EPCA (Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority), which was formed in 1998 by the Supreme Court.  
• Powers of the CAQM: Issue directions and take necessary measures to improve air quality. Investigate complaints related to air quality and pollution control. 
  • Take action against non-compliance by authorities under the provisions of the CAQM Act. Investigate complaints related to air quality and pollution control. 
  • It formulates action plans for controlling key pollution sources like vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and agricultural stubble burning.  
    • One of its key initiatives is the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), which implements restrictions based on pollution severity. 
• Graded Response Action Plan:  It is a proactive strategy to tackle air pollution in Delhi-NCR. It includes staged actions based on air quality levels, ensuring timely interventions to reduce health risks and environmental damage during high pollution periods. 
  • Stage I (AQI 201-300): "Poor" air quality, with actions such as stricter enforcement of vehicle regulations. 
  • Stage II (AQI 301-400): "Very Poor" air quality, focusing on hotspot actions and limiting the use of diesel generators. 
  • Stage III (AQI 401-450): "Severe" air quality, involving vehicle restrictions and potential school closures. 
  • Stage IV (AQI > 450): "Severe+" air quality, with stringent entry restrictions for vehicles and possible shutdowns of non-essential businesses and educational institutions. 

India’s Crop-Residue Management Initiatives 

• Baler Machine 
• Bio-Decomposer 
• National Policy for Management of Crop Residue (NPMCR): In 2014, the Ministry of Agriculture introduced the NPMCR to curb residue burning. Key objectives include:  
  • Promoting technologies for optimal use and in-situ management of crop residues. Supporting appropriate machinery for farming. 
  • Using satellite-based technologies for monitoring and providing financial support through a multidisciplinary approach for innovative projects. 

Way Forward 

• Educating farmers about alternatives to stubble burning and providing incentives for sustainable practices will play a key role in reducing farm fires. 
  • Promoting in-situ and ex-situ crop residue management techniques can greatly reduce the need for stubble burning. 
• The reliance on outdated satellite technology and fire-counting methods must be revisited. Collecting data from GEO Imaging Satellites and incorporating more advanced techniques, such as high-resolution satellite imagery, and machine learning algorithms to track the extent of burned areas, will provide a more accurate measure of farm fires. 
• A pan-regional policy addressing stubble burning across all affected states, with consistent guidelines and coordinated enforcement, is essential for ensuring better compliance.

Drishti Mains Question: 

Discuss the challenges in accurately monitoring farm fires and the implications of these challenges on air quality management?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Mains

Q. Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three mega cities of the country but the air pollution is much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so? (2015)

Atal Innovation Mission 2.0

Source: PIB 

Why in News? 

The Union Cabinet has approved the continuation of the Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) under NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) with an enhanced budget of Rs. 2,750 crore, marking the launch of AIM 2.0 to strengthen India's innovation ecosystem until 2028. 

What is the AIM 2.0? 

• AIM 2.0:  Building on AIM success, such as Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs) and Atal Incubation Centers (AICs), AIM 2.0 seeks to scale and pilot new initiatives. 
  • It aims to expand and deepen India’s innovation and entrepreneurship ecosystem. 
  • India ranks 39th on the Global Innovation Index and is home to the world’s third-largest start-up ecosystem. 
• Key Programs Under AIM 2.0: 
  • Language Inclusive Program of Innovation (LIPI): Establish vernacular innovation centers in 22 scheduled languages to support non-English-speaking innovators. 
  • Frontier Program: Create 2500 new ATLs in underserved regions like Jammu and Kashmir, North Eastern states, and Aspirational Districts. 
  • Programs Targeting Improving Ecosystem: Trains professionals (managers, teachers, trainers) for the innovation ecosystem. 
    • Create a research sandbox for commercialising deep tech startups requiring longer investment. 
    • Strengthen state-level innovation ecosystems through NITI Aayog’s State Support Mission. 
    • Expands India’s innovation ecosystem globally through engagements with advanced nations, Global Tinkering Olympiad, and partnerships with  United Nations World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and G20. 
  • Programs Targeting Improved Output Quality: The Industrial Accelerator Program aims to scale up advanced startups by creating 10 accelerators in critical sectors through Public-Private Partnerships (PPP).  
    • The Atal Sectoral Innovation Launchpads (ASIL) program will establish 10 iDEX-like platforms across central ministries to integrate and procure from startups in key industry sectors. 

Atal Innovation Mission 

• About: Launched by NITI Aayog in 2016, AIM promotes innovation and entrepreneurship by fostering a problem-solving mindset in students and strengthening the entrepreneurial ecosystem in universities and research institutions. 
• Key Programs under AIM: 
  • Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs): Set up in schools to foster innovation in students (grades 6-12) using tools like 3D printing. 
  • Atal Incubation Centres (AICs): Business incubators promoting startups with mentorship, funding, and technical support. 
  • Atal Community Innovation Centres (ACICs): Focused on underserved regions, promoting innovation in Tier 2/3 cities, tribal areas, etc. 
  • Atal New India Challenges (ANIC): Supports technology-based innovations addressing national challenges, providing funding and mentorship. 
  • Mentor India: Engages 6,200+ mentors across sectors to guide entrepreneurs and innovators under AIM’s programs. 

 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. Atal Innovation Mission is set up under the (2019)

(a) Department of Science and Technology 

(b) Ministry of Labour and Employment 

(c) NITI Aayog 

(d) Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 

Ans: (c)

Cloud Seeding to Reduce Air Pollution

Source: HT 

Why in News?

Recently, the proposal for cloud seeding as a measure to combat air pollution in Delhi has gained attention due to the acute air quality crisis with the Air Quality Index (AQI) exceeding 450.

What is Cloud Seeding?

• About:   
  • Cloud seeding, a weather modification technique, enhances precipitation by dispersing chemicals like silver iodide, potassium iodide, or dry ice into clouds, which serve as nuclei for water droplet formation, leading to rainfall. 
  • This process facilitates the formation of ice crystals in clouds, which can lead to artificial rain.  
    • The technique is being considered as a potential solution to combat severe air pollution, particularly during periods of high Air Quality Index (AQI) readings. 
• Types of Cloud Seeding: 
  • Static Cloud Seeding: 
    • This method involves introducing ice nuclei, such as silver iodide or dry ice, into cold clouds that have supercooled liquid water droplets. 
    • The ice nuclei can trigger the formation of ice crystals or snowflakes, which can grow at the expense of the liquid droplets and fall as precipitation. 
  • Dynamic Cloud Seeding: 
    • Dynamic cloud seeding is a technique to artificially stimulate rainfall by enhancing vertical air currents, thereby promoting the formation and growth of rain clouds. 
    • The process is considered more complex than static cloud seeding because it depends on a sequence of events working properly. 
  • Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding: 
    • This method involves spraying fine particles of hygroscopic materials, such as salts through flares or explosives into the base of warm clouds. 
    • The particles can act as cloud condensation nuclei and increase the number and size of the cloud droplets, which can enhance the reflectivity and stability of the clouds. 
  • Glaciogenic Cloud Seeding:  
    • It involves inducing ice formation in supercooled clouds by dispersing ice nuclei such as silver iodide or dry ice, leading to ice nucleation and precipitation. 
• Applications of the Technique: 
  • Cloud seeding is also used to enhance winter snowfall and increase mountain snowpack, supplementing the natural water supply for nearby communities. 
  • Cloud seeding can also be done to prevent hailstorms, dissipate fog, induce rainfall in drought-prone regions, or reduce air pollution.

What are the Challenges in Implementation of Cloud Seeding? 

• Environmental Impact: As artificial rain falls, seeding agents like silver iodide, dry ice or salt will also fall.  
  • Residual silver discovered in places near cloud-seeding projects is considered toxic. As for dry ice, it can also be a source of greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming (carbon dioxide). 
• Temporary Relief: While cloud seeding may provide short-term relief from air pollution by washing away particulate matter, it does not address the root causes of pollution such as vehicular emissions and industrial discharges. 
  • Example: Cloud seeding in Lahore, improved AQI from "poor" to "moderate." However, the effects were short-lived. 
• Availability Issues: Cloud seeding requires the presence of moisture-filled clouds, which are not always available or predictable. 
  • Specific cloud characteristics, including liquid water content and vertical motion, were used to identify clouds with potential for rainfall. 
• Costly: It involves processes such as delivering chemicals to the sky and releasing them into the air by flare shots or aeroplanes, which involves huge costs and logistic preparation. 
  • Example: Cloud seeding in Delhi requires Rs 13 crore to cover the entire aerial area of 1,300 square kilometers.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q. In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? (2019)

(a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions 

(b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones 

(c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth 

(d) Reducing the global warming

Ans: (d)

Consanguinity Marriage and Inbreeding

Source: TH

In Uppada coast villages in Andhra Pradesh, consanguineous marriages are causing conditions like cerebral palsy, Dandy-Walker Malformation (DWM), albinism, and other deformities.

• A consanguineous marriage is a union between two people who are related by blood, usually as second cousins or closer.
  • It is different from incestuous marriages (a marriage between direct descendants like between father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister).
• Practices like the ‘Voni’ promise, an oral agreement made at a girl’s birth, enforce consanguinity in the above case.
• Inbreeding is the genetic outcome of consanguineous marriage. Inbreeding increases the degree of homozygosity to the offspring and also the expression of recessive traits.
  • In homozygosity, an individual inherits the same alleles for a particular gene from both parents leading to genetic disorders.
    • Alleles are different versions of the same gene. E.g., the gene for eye colour may have alleles for blue, brown, or green eyes.
• Inbreeding increases the genetic load. Genetic load measures the rate of damage caused by the presence of certain deleterious or disadvantaged genes in the population.
• The Hindu Marriage Act prohibits Sapindas marriage between two Hindus unless there is an established custom.
  • A sapinda marriage involves individuals who share a specific degree of familial closeness.

Read More...

National Gopal Ratna Award 2024

Source: PIB

Recently, the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD) announced the winners of the National Gopal Ratna Awards (NGRA) 2024 under the Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM).

• It is one of the highest honours in the livestock and dairy sector and is presented on National Milk Day (26^th November 2024).
• Award Categories:
  • Best dairy farmer rearing indigenous cattle/buffalo breeds,
  • Best Artificial Insemination Technician (AIT)
  • Best dairy cooperative/ milk producer company/ dairy farmer producer organisation.
  • Special Awards for the North Eastern Region (NER) were introduced in 2024.
• RGM was launched in 2014 to conserve and develop indigenous breeds under the National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development (NPBBDD).
• NPBBDD have Two Components:
  • National Programme for Bovine Breeding (NPBB): Conservation and development of recognized indigenous breeds.
  • National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD): Creating infrastructure related to production, procurement, processing and marketing by milk unions/federations.

Read More...

Ophiophagus Kaalinga

Source: TH 

Recently, Karnataka's king cobra species, known locally as ‘Kaalinga Sarpa,’ is officially named Ophiophagus Kaalinga in the scientific community. 

• King cobras were first classified in 1836 as Ophiophagus hannah by Danish naturalist Theodore Edward Cantor. 
  • King cobras underwent no genetic studies for 186 years until recently. 
• The king cobra has been reclassified into four distinct species based on geographical lineages: 
  • Northern King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah): Found from Pakistan to eastern China and Southeast Asia. 
  • Sunda King Cobra (Ophiophagus bungarus): Inhabits Southeast Asia, including Thailand, Malaysia, and parts of the Philippines. 
  • Western Ghats King Cobra (Ophiophagus kaalinga): Endemic to India’s Western Ghats. 
  • Luzon King Cobra (Ophiophagus salvatana): Found only on Luzon Island, Philippines. 
• King cobras are diurnal (active during the day), feeding primarily on snakes like rat snakes, dhamans, and other cobras. 
• The king cobra is the only snake that builds and guards a nest until the eggs hatch. 
• Its venom is used in developing pain relievers like Cobroxin and Nyloxin. 

Read More: Snake Venom Neutralising Antibody

SC Quashes Telangana Land Allotment to Privileged Groups

Source: IE 

The Supreme Court(SC) of India has quashed the Telangana government's land allotments to cooperative societies comprising Members of Parliament (MPs), Member of the Legislative Assembly(MLA), civil servants, and journalists, deeming it a violation of equality under Article 14 of the Constitution. 

• The SC criticized the land allotment to privileged groups at discounted rates, favoring the already privileged over marginalized communities. 
  • The court warned that such allocation of scarce land resources leads to inequality and has broader economic implications in densely populated urban areas. 
• The ruling termed the policy a colourable exercise of power, benefiting policymakers and their peers while misusing public resources under the guise of aiding "deserving sections." 
  • A   of power refers to actions taken by a legislative body that seem to be within their authority but actually violate constitutional limits or principles 
• The SC reminded the government that the State holds resources in trust for citizens, and its actions should aim for the public good rather than benefiting select groups. 

Read more: Fundamental Rights (Part-1)