Abortion

For Prelims: Abortion, Article 34 of the French Constitution, Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971, Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

For Mains: Abortion Law in India, Legal Provisions Related to Abortion in India.

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, the French lawmakers have overwhelmingly approved a bill to enshrine abortion rights in France's constitution, making it the only country to explicitly guarantee a woman’s right to voluntarily terminate a pregnancy.

• The approved bill amends Article 34 of the French Constitution, explicitly stating that “the law determines the conditions by which the freedom of women to have recourse to an abortion, which is guaranteed.”

Note

The bill was brought forth in response to concerns about the erosion of abortion rights globally, particularly highlighted by the US Supreme Court's decision in Roe v Wade case to overturn long standing abortion rights in 2022.

What is Abortion?

• About:
  • Abortion is the deliberate termination of a pregnancy, typically performed during the first 28 weeks of gestation. It can be achieved through various medical procedures or medications, depending on the stage of pregnancy and the preferences of the individual seeking abortion.
  • Abortion can be a highly contentious and debated topic, often involving ethical, moral, religious, and legal considerations.
• Proponents:
  • Proponents of abortion rights argue that it is a fundamental reproductive right that allows individuals to make choices about their own bodies, health, and future.
  • They emphasise the importance of access to safe and legal abortion services in preventing unwanted pregnancies, protecting women's health, and supporting reproductive autonomy.
• Opponents:
  • Opponents of abortion, often referred to as "pro-life," believe that abortion is morally wrong and should be restricted or prohibited entirely.
  • They typically argue that life begins at conception and that terminating a pregnancy is equivalent to taking a human life, thus violating the rights of the unborn foetus.
• Legal Provisions Related to Abortion in India:
  • Until the 1960s, abortion was prohibited in India, and violating this led to imprisonment or fines under Section 312 of the Indian Penal Code.
    • The Shantilal Shah Committee was set up in the mid-1960s to investigate the need for abortion regulations.
    • Based on its findings, the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971 was enacted, allowing safe and legal abortions, safeguarding women's health, and reducing maternal mortality.
    • The Supreme Court recognized martial rape as a ground for abortion, even though marital rape itself is not recognized, in a progressive move for women's reproductive rights.
  • The MTP Act, 1971, allows abortion up to 20 weeks of gestation, with the consent of the woman and on the advice of one registered medical practitioner (RMP). However, the law was updated in 2002 and 2021.
    • The MTP Amendment Act, 2021 permits abortion from 20 to 24 weeks of gestation for specific cases like rape survivors, with approval from two doctors.
    • It sets up state level Medical Boards to decide if a pregnancy may be terminated after 24 weeks in cases of substantial fetal abnormalities.
  • It extends the failure of contraceptive clauses to unmarried women (initially only married women), allowing them to seek abortion services on grounds of their choice, irrespective of their marital status.
    • Consent requirements vary based on age and mental state, ensuring medical practitioner oversight.
• The Constitution of India, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty to all citizens under Article 21. This right has been interpreted by the Supreme Court of India to include the right to reproductive choice and autonomy for women.

Note

• In Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. the Union Of India Case, 2017, the Supreme court recognized the constitutional right of women to make reproductive choices, as a part of personal liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

What are the Concerns Related to Abortion?

• Cases of Unsafe Abortions:
  • Unsafe abortions are the third leading cause of maternal mortality in India, and close to 8 women die from causes related to unsafe abortions each day, according to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)'s State of the World Population Report 2022.
  • The women outside marriages and in poor families are left with no choice but to use unsafe or illegal ways to abort unwanted pregnancies.
• Preference for a Male Child:
  • The selective abortion of female foetuses is most common where male children are valued over female children, especially in parts of East Asia and South Asia (particularly in countries such as China, India and Pakistan).
• Shortage of Medical Expert in Rural India:
  • According to a 2018 study in the Lancet, 15.6 million abortions were accessed every year in India as of 2015.
  • The MTP Act requires abortion to be performed only by doctors with specialisation in gynaecology or obstetrics.
    • However, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare’s 2019-20 report on Rural Health Statistics indicates that there is a 70% shortage of obstetrician-gynaecologists in rural India.

Way Forward

• Efforts should be made to ensure that women have access to safe and legal abortion services without facing unnecessary barriers or stigma.
  • This may involve expanding the availability of abortion services in both urban and rural areas, training healthcare providers to offer comprehensive reproductive health services, and raising awareness about women's rights under the MTP Act.
• Medical practitioners play a vital role in ensuring women's access to safe abortion services.
  • Policies should be designed to support healthcare providers in delivering high-quality, non-judgmental care to women seeking abortion services, while also addressing any ethical or legal concerns they may have.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question:

Mains

Q. What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space? (2019)

Centre Notifies Rules for CAA Implementation

For Prelims: Citizenship Amendment Act, Citizenship Act, 1955, Routes of Acquiring Citizenship in India, Foreigners Act, 1946, Sixth Schedule, Inner Line Permit, National Register of Citizens, Assam Accord.

For Mains: Concerns Related to the Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019.

Source: IE

Why in News?

Recently, the Indian government notified the rules for the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019, paving the way for its implementation after over 4 years since its passage by Parliament in December 2019.

• The CAA, 2019 is an Indian legislation that provides a path to Indian citizenship for migrants belonging to six religious minorities: Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.

What are the Rules Issued by the Government Concerning the Citizenship Amendment Act?

• Historical Context: The government has previously taken steps to address the plight of refugees, including amendments to the Citizenship Rules in 2004 and notifications in 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2018.
• CAA Rules 2024: The application process for citizenship under CAA has been made under Section 6B of the Citizenship Act, 1955. Applicants need to prove their country of origin, religion, date of entry into India, and knowledge of an Indian language to qualify for Indian citizenship.
  • Proof of Country of Origin: Relaxed requirements allow various documents, including birth or educational certificates, identity documents, licenses, land records, or any document proving previous citizenship of the mentioned countries.
  • Date of Entry into India: Applicants can provide 20 different documents as proof of entry into India, including visas, residential permits, census slips, driving licenses, Aadhaar cards, ration cards, government or court letters, birth certificates, and more.
• Mechanism for Implementation of Rules:
  • The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has assigned the task of processing citizenship applications under the CAA to the Postal department and Census officials under the Union government.
    • Background and security checks will be conducted by Central security agencies like the Intelligence Bureau (IB).
  • Final decisions on applications will be made by empowered committees led by the Director (Census Operations) in each State.
  • These committees will include officials from various departments, including the Intelligence Bureau, Post Master General, State or National Informatics Centre, and representatives from the State government's Department of Home and Divisional Railway Manager.
    • District-level committees, headed by the Superintendent of the Department of Post, will sift through applications, with a representative from the District Collector's office as an invitee.
• Processing of Applications: The Empowered Committee and District Level Committee (DLC), instituted by the Centre, will process citizenship applications, bypassing state control.
  • DLC will receive applications, and the final decision will be made by the Empowered Committee, headed by the Director (Census Operations).

What is the Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019?

• Citizenship in India: Citizenship is the legal status and relationship between an individual and a state that entails specific rights and duties.
  • Citizenship in India is listed in the Union List under the Constitution and thus is under the exclusive jurisdiction of Parliament.
    • The Constitution of India, on 26th January, 1950, established categories of people eligible for Indian citizenship.
      • It also granted Parliament the authority to regulate additional aspects of citizenship, such as granting and renunciation.
    • Under this authority, Parliament enacted the Citizenship Act, 1955.
  • The Act specifies that citizenship may be acquired in India through five methods: by birth in India, by descent, through registration, by naturalisation (extended residence in India), and by incorporation of territory into India.
    • Children born in India to ambassadors are not eligible for Indian citizenship based solely on their birth in the country.

• About: The Citizenship Act, 1955 was amended in 2019 to grant citizenship to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, or Christian migrants from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.
  • Under the amendment, migrants who entered India on 31^st December 2014, and had suffered “religious persecution or fear or religious persecution" in their country of origin would be made eligible for accelerated citizenship.
  • It exempts the members of the six communities from any criminal case under Foreigners Act, 1946 and Passport Act, 1920 which specify punishment for entering the country illegally and staying on expired visas and permits.
• Relaxations: Under the Citizenship Act, 1935, one of the requirements for citizenship by naturalization is that the applicant must have resided in India during the last 12 months, as well as for 11 of the previous 14 years.
  • The 2019 amendment relaxes the second requirement from 11 years to 6 years as a specific condition for applicants belonging to these six religions, and the aforementioned three countries.
• Exemptions: CAA will not apply to regions mentioned under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which include Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
  • Additionally, areas covered by the Inner Line Permit system (ILP) are also exempt from the CAA.
    • The concept of Inner Line separates the tribal-majority hills of the Northeast from the plains areas. To enter and stay in these areas, an Inner Line Permit (ILP) is needed.
    • Currently, Inner Line Permit regulates visit of all persons, including Indian citizens, to Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
  • This exclusion is intended to protect the interests of tribal and indigenous communities in the North-Eastern region, ensuring that individuals residing in these areas cannot seek citizenship under the provisions of the CAA, 2019.

What are the Concerns Related to the CAA, 2019?

• Constitutional Challenge: Critics argue that it violates Article 14 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees the right to equality before the law and prohibits discrimination based on religion.
  • The CAA's provision of granting citizenship based on religion is seen as discriminatory.
• Potential for Disenfranchisement: The CAA is often linked to the National Register of Citizens (NRC), a proposed nationwide exercise to identify illegal immigrants.
  • Critics fear that a combination of CAA and a faulty NRC could disenfranchise several citizens who are unable to prove their documentation.
    • More than 19.06 lakh people were left out of the final draft of the Assam NRC released in August 2019.
• Impact on Assam Accord: In Assam, there is a specific concern regarding the compatibility of the CAA with the Assam Accord, 1985.
  • The Accord established criteria for determining citizenship in Assam, including specific cut-off dates for residency.
  • The CAA's provision of a different timeline for granting citizenship could conflict with the provisions of the Assam Accord, leading to legal and political complications.
• Secularism and Social Cohesion: The CAA's focus on religion as a criterion for citizenship eligibility has raised broader concerns about its impact on secularism and social cohesion in India.
  • Critics argue that privileging certain religious communities over others undermines the secular principles upon which the Indian state was founded and could exacerbate communal tensions.
• Exclusion of few Religious Communities: The exclusion of certain religious communities from the CAA and its subsequent rules, such as Sri Lankan Tamils and Tibetan Buddhists, who faced religious persecution in their home countries, raises concerns.

Note

The Matua community of West Bengal (Hindu refugees from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) , have welcomed the CAA rules. The notification coincides with the birth anniversary of Harichand Thakur, a founder of the Matua sect, born in 1812 in present-day Bangladesh.

Way Forward

• Inclusive Refugee Policy: There is a need to develop a more inclusive refugee policy of India in lines with the UN Refugee Convention that does not discriminate based on religion, ethnicity, or any other arbitrary criteria.
  • Also, ensuring that citizenship laws prioritise principles of equality and non-discrimination, providing equal opportunities for all individuals regardless of their background.
• Documentation Assistance: Implement measures to assist individuals, particularly marginalised communities, in obtaining necessary documentation to prove their citizenship status.
  • Provide support services and resources to help individuals navigate the citizenship verification process, thereby mitigating the risk of statelessness.
• Stakeholder Engagement and Dialogue: Facilitating meaningful dialogue and consultation with civil society organisations, religious leaders, and communities against it to address grievances and concerns related to the CAA.
• International Engagement: Engaging with neighbouring countries, particularly Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh, to address concerns related to religious persecution and human rights violations.
  • India should also work towards regional cooperation and diplomatic initiatives aimed at promoting religious freedom and tolerance.
• Educational and Awareness Campaigns: Conducting educational and awareness campaigns to disseminate accurate information about citizenship laws and dispel misinformation or misconceptions.
  • Promoting public understanding of the principles of equality, secularism, and inclusivity enshrined in the Indian Constitution.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Q. Consider the following statements: (2018)

1. Aadhaar card can be used as a proof of citizenship or domicile.
2. Once issued, Aadhaar number cannot be deactivated or omitted by the Issuing Authority.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Ans: (d)

Q. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (2021)

1. There is only one citizenship and one domicile.
2. A citizen by birth only can become the Head of State.
3. A foreigner once granted citizenship cannot be deprived of it under any circumstances.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 2 and 3

Ans: (a)

BioCNG Production from Dung

For Prelims: Biogas, BioCNG, GOBARdhan, SATAT Scheme

For Mains: Biogas Energy and its Significance, BioCNG, Bioenergy, Related Initiatives

Source: IE

Why in News?

Banaskantha District Co-operative Milk Producers’ Union, Gujarat are converting dung into Bio CNG (compressed natural gas) and fertiliser, supplementing farmers' income. This initiative addresses waste management while creating new revenue streams for dairy farmers.

• The BioCNG outlet on the Deesa-Tharad highway in Gujarat's Banaskantha district is a pioneering initiative, being India's first and only gas-filling station operating on dung sourced from cattle and buffaloes.

How are Farmers Harnessing the Value of Dung?

• Dung Facts:
  • An average adult bovine animal discharges 15-20 kg of fresh dung daily, while calves give out 5-10 kg.
    • A bovine refers to a domestic animal of the species Bos taurus (cattle) or Bubalus bubalis (water buffalo).
  • Fresh dung contains 80-85% water; one kg weighs hardly 200 grams on drying.
  • Fresh dung contains methane along with water, making it essential for biogas production in anaerobic digestion (breaks down biodegradable material without oxygen and produces biogas).
    • Methane, a key component of biogas, is produced in the rumen of bovines (the first of four stomach compartments in bovines) during the fermentation of plant material they consume.
    • Bacteria-like microbes in the rumen, known as archaea, utilise carbon dioxide and hydrogen produced during carbohydrate fermentation to generate methane.
• Biogas Production Process:
  • Fresh raw dung is mixed with water in equal quantities to form a slurry. The slurry undergoes anaerobic digestion in a sealed vessel reactor over 35 days.
    • The digestion involves four successive stages: hydrolysis (break-down of organic matter into simple molecules), acidogenesis (their conversion into volatile fatty acids), acetogenesis (production of acetic acid, CO₂ and hydrogen) and methanogenesis (biogas generation).
  • Biogas digesters reduce methane emissions from animal waste, which can help mitigate greenhouse gas impact.
    • A single cow can emit between 150 to 260 pounds of methane per year. With over 1.5 billion cattle raised globally for meat and milk production, the industry is responsible for an estimated 14.5% of global human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.
• Biogas Purification and Compression:
  • Raw biogas is purified to remove CO₂, H₂S, and moisture through various processes.
  • The purified biogas, compressed to 96-97% methane, is stored and farmers sell it as BioCNG at Rs 72/kg.
• Utilization of Slurry for Fertilizer Production:
  • After biogas production, the slurry undergoes dewatering in a solid-liquid separator.
    • The separated solid residue is decomposed aerobically and sold as PROM (phosphate-rich organic manure) by incorporating rock phosphate and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria.
    • Alternatively, the decomposed solid residue can be used for compost production by adding neem and castor cake, sugarcane press mud, and microbial consortia.
    • The liquid part is reused for mixing in the digester or sold as liquid-fermented organic manure.
• Scalability and Replicability:
  • The BioCNG model is replicable and scalable, utilising dung from district member unions.
  • Gujarat's Kaira Union's decentralised model involves installing Flexi Biogas plants, targeting 10,000 installations.
  • Individual farmers benefit from smaller Flexi plants for personal use and potentially generate additional income.
    • Whether through large-scale BioCNG plants or smaller decentralized models, the potential for additional income from dung utilization is growing.

Biogas

• Biogas is a renewable energy source that's produced when organic matter breaks down in the absence of oxygen. This process is called anaerobic digestion.
• Biogas is also known as renewable natural gas (RNG) or biomethane. It's made up of mostly methane (CH) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).

What are the Key Challenges that Need to be Addressed?

• Feedstock Management:
  • Ensuring a consistent supply and quality of organic feedstock for animals.
  • Implementing effective waste segregation and collection systems.
• Operational Efficiency:
  • Individual farmers and smaller cooperatives might lack the knowledge and resources for proper maintenance and monitoring of BioCNG plants.
    • Training programs and readily available technical support and establishing standardised operating procedures and quality control measures are crucial.
• Technical and Financial Barriers:
  • Access to financing options like subsidies, grants, or low-interest loans can help overcome initial capital barriers for setting up BioCNG plants.
  • Technical challenges, such as a lack of skilled labour and infrastructure, can be addressed through public-private partnerships, technology transfer, and capacity-building programs.
• Storage Systems for Biogas:
  • BioCNG needs to be stored and distributed efficiently to reach end-users, whether for cooking, heating, or electricity generation.
    • Proper storage systems, such as gas holders or cylinders, are required to ensure a consistent supply of BioCNG.
• Social Acceptance:
  • Overcoming the misconception that dung gas is unhygienic and unsafe is essential for widespread adoption.
  • Educational outreach and showcasing the hygienic process are key to promoting decentralised biogas models among rural farmers.

What are India's Initiatives Related to Biogas?

• Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation" (SATAT) Scheme
• GOBARdhan
• National Biogas Programme:
  • The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is supporting the installation of biogas plants and its use as a source of alternative fuels for cooking purposes in the country, including rural areas, under the National Biogas Programme.
  • Under this scheme, MNRE is providing Central Financial Assistance (CFA) for setting up of biogas plants, ranging from Rs. 9800/- to Rs. 70,400/- per biogas plant based on the size of the plant (1-25 cubic meter/day plant capacity).

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims:

Q. Consider the following: (2019)

1. Carbon monoxide
2. Methane
3. Ozone
4. Sulphur dioxide

Which of the above are released into the atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (d)

---

Mains:

Q. What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid waste which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (2018)

National Urban Cooperative Finance and Development Corporation Limited

For Prelims: National Urban Cooperative Finance and Development Corporation Limited, Urban cooperative banks, Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002, Banking Regulation Act, 1949, N. S. Vishwanathan Committee, Small Finance Banks.

For Mains: Major Issues Related to the UCBs, Issues Related to Banking Sector in India.

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Minister for Cooperation inaugurated the National Urban Cooperative Finance and Development Corporation Limited (NUCFDC), an umbrella organisation for urban cooperative banks (UCB).

• NUCFDC has received Reserve Bank of India (RBI)’s approval to function as a non-banking finance company and a self-regulatory organisation for the urban cooperative banking sector.

What are Urban Cooperative Banks?

• About: Cooperative banks are financial institutions that are owned and operated by their members, who are also the bank's customers.
  • In order to support the financial needs of a community such as a village or a specific community, people come together to pool resources and provide banking services such as loans.
    • In India, they are registered under the Cooperative Societies Act of the State concerned or the Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002.
  • Urban Co-operative Banks (UCBs) refers to primary cooperative banks located in urban and semi-urban areas.
• History:
  • The urban cooperative banking movement in India originated at the end of the 19th century, influenced by successful cooperative experiments in Britain and Germany.
    • The "Anyonya Sahakari Mandali" in the princely State of Baroda is believed to be the earliest mutual aid society in India.
  • Also, the first urban cooperative credit society was registered in Canjeevaram (Kanjivaram) in the erstwhile Madras province in October, 1904.
• Regulator: The Reserve Bank regulates the banking functions of Urban Cooperative Banks under the provisions of Sections 22 and 23 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
  • Also, State Cooperative Banks, District Central Cooperative Banks and Urban Cooperative Banks, which are registered with Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation are insured.
• Four Tier Structure:
  • In 2021 RBI appointed N. S. Vishwanathan committee that suggested a 4-tier structure for the UCBs.
    • Tier 1 with all unit UCBs and salary earner’s UCBs (irrespective of deposit size) and all other UCBs having deposits up to Rs 100 crore.
    • Tier 2 with UCBs of deposits between Rs 100 crore and Rs 1,000 crore,
    • Tier 3 with UCBs of deposits between Rs 1,000 crore and Rs 10,000 crore, and
    • Tier 4 with UCBs of deposits more than Rs 10,000 crore.
• Minimum Capital and RWA: Tier 1 UCBs operating in a single district should have a minimum net worth of ₹2 crore. For all other UCBs the minimum net worth should be ₹5 crore.
  • Tier 1 UCBs have to maintain a minimum capital to risk weighted assets ratio of 9% of Risk Weighted Assets (RWAs) on an ongoing basis.
  • Tier 2 to 4 UCBs have to maintain a minimum capital to risk weighted assets of 12% of RWAs on an ongoing basis.
  • UCBs with a minimum net worth of Rs.500 million and maintaining Capital to Risk (Weighted) Assets Ratio of 9% and above are eligible to apply for voluntary transition to Small Finance Banks.
• Current Status: Currently, there are 1,514 UCBs in India, accounting for 11% of the total credit to agriculture. The total deposit base of UCBs stands at ₹5.26 trillion.

Note

NABARD is entrusted with the responsibility for conduct of statutory inspections of State Cooperative Banks, District Central Cooperative Banks and Regional Rural Banks under the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.

• The regulatory powers continue to be vested with the Reserve Bank of India.

What are the Major Issues Related to the UCBs?

• High Non-performing Assets: Non-performing assets (NPAs) remain a significant concern for UCBs (2.10%). Poor credit appraisal practices, inadequate risk management frameworks, and exposure to vulnerable sectors contribute to high levels of NPAs, impacting profitability and stability.
• Limited Technology Adoption: Limited technological infrastructure and digital capabilities hinder UCBs' ability to offer modern banking services and compete with larger commercial banks.
  • Inadequate investment in technology leads to inefficiencies, operational risks, and difficulties in meeting evolving customer expectations.
• Fraud and Mismanagement: Instances of fraud, embezzlement, and mismanagement have been reported in several UCBs (like Urban Co-operative Bank, Sitapur, Uttar Pradesh), eroding depositor confidence and tarnishing the sector's reputation.
  • In the financial year 2022-23, RBI cancelled licences of 8 cooperative banks.

Way Forward

• Transparency and Accountability: UCBs need to embrace greater transparency in their operations and financial reporting to rebuild public trust. This includes regular audits and clear communication with members.
• Proactive Credit Risk Management: Implementing robust credit risk management practices to identify, assess, and monitor credit risks associated with lending activities.
  • This involves conducting thorough credit assessments of borrowers, including comprehensive analysis of their financials, repayment capacity, and credit history.
  • Additionally, establishing clear credit policies, risk grading systems, and early warning indicators can help UCBs detect potential NPAs at an early stage and take timely corrective actions to prevent defaults.
• Capacity Building: Investing in training and capacity building initiatives for UCB staff to enhance their skills, knowledge, and expertise in banking operations, risk management, and customer service. Urban Co-operative Banks: RBI - To The Point | Drishti IAS English

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q. With reference to ‘Urban Cooperative Banks’ in India, consider the following statements:

1. They are supervised and regulated by local boards set up by the State Governments.
2. They can issue equity shares and preference shares.
3. They were brought under the purview of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 through an Amendment in 1966.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (b)

Tiger Safari in Tiger Reserve

For Prelims: Supreme Court, Tiger Safari at Pakhrau, Corbett Tiger Reserve, Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Tiger Safari, National Board for Wild Life , Central Zoo Authority (CZA) , Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Nahargarh Biological Park, Asiatic lions, Royal Bengal tigers, panthers, hyenas, wolves, deer, crocodiles, sloth bears, Himalayan black bears,

For Mains: Significance of establishment of a Tiger Safari in the Buffer zone of Corbett Tiger Reserve.

Source: IE

Why in News?

The Supreme Court expressed inclination towards approving the establishment of a Tiger Safari at Pakhrau, Uttarakhand in the buffer area of Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR).

• The court emphasised that safari parks are intended only for local tigers that are injured, conflicted, or orphaned, and not those sourced from zoos.
• The court gave the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) a three-month deadline to conclude its investigation into alleged irregularities within CTR.

Note

• In its interim order related to the case challenging the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, the Supreme Court stated that the creation of zoos or safaris by any government or authority must receive final approval from the apex court.

What Does a Tiger Safari Really Mean?

• About:
  • A tiger safari is an expedition undertaken to observe tigers in their natural habitat.
  • These safaris typically take place in protected areas like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, particularly in India, which is home to over 70% of the world's wild tiger population.
• Definition:
  • The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 does not define "tiger safari".
    • The act mandates that “no construction of commercial tourist lodges, hotels, zoos and safari parks shall be undertaken inside a sanctuary except with the prior approval of the National Board for Wild Life constituted under the Act.
• Establishment:
  • The concept of a tiger safari was introduced in the 2012 Guidelines for Tourism by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), allowing for such establishments in the buffer areas of tiger reserves.
  • NTCA guidelines of 2016 permitted the establishment of "Tiger Safaris" in buffer and fringe areas of tiger reserves for injured, conflicted, or orphaned tigers, stipulating that no tigers should be obtained from zoos.
  • In 2019, the NTCA permitted animals to be sourced from zoos for tiger safari, granting the Central Zoo Authority (CZA) the authority to select these animals.

What are the Needs and Concerns Related to Building a Tiger Safari in the Forest?

• Need:
  • The 2012 NTCA guidelines supported safari parks as a strategy to alleviate the tourism pressure within tiger reserves, which can stress wildlife.
  • There is resistance to transferring animals that are not suited for the wild, like those that are injured, orphaned, or caught in conflicts, to distant zoos.
    • Safari parks provide a way to keep such animals captive within their natural environment.
  • Buffer areas were designated to accommodate activities supporting the livelihood and development needs of local communities.
    • Safari parks contribute to generating income and fostering local support for tiger conservation.
• Concerns
  • Housing zoo tigers or other captive animals within tiger habitats poses a risk of disease transmission to wild tigers and other wildlife.
  • Keeping captive animals in different locations doesn't change their captive status. Creating safari parks for "rescued" tigers in reserves might focus more on the welfare of individual tigers than on conserving the species, which could disturb natural habitats.
    • The concept of displaying "rescued" tigers in safari parks diverges from the norm of keeping distressed animals away from public view.
    • The 2016 guidelines were cautious about this policy shift, mandating assessment by the NTCA for every "recovered/treated animal" before placement in safari parks.
  • The Supreme Court held that the NTCA's interpretation of tiger safaris as essentially zoos within tiger reserves contradicts the purpose of tiger conservation.
  • Efforts to reduce tourist crowds around tigers in reserves have often failed, with new safari routes attracting even more visitors.

Corbett Tiger Reserve

• About:
  • It is located in the Nainital district of Uttarakhand. The Project Tiger was launched in 1973 in Corbett National Park (first National Park of India), which is part of Corbett Tiger Reserve.
    • The national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park to protect the endangered Bengal tiger.
  • The core area forms the Corbett National Park while the buffer contains reserve forests as well as the Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary.
  • The entire area of the reserve is mountainous and falls in the Shivalik and Outer Himalaya geological provinces.
  • Ramganga, Sonanadi, Mandal, Palain and Kosi are the major rivers flowing through the Reserve.
• Other Major Protected Areas of Uttarakhand:
  • Nanda Devi National Park.
  • Valley of Flowers National Park.
    • Valley of Flowers National Park and Nanda Devi National Park together are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Rajaji National Park.
  • Gangotri National Park.

Rajaji National Park

• About:
  • Location: Haridwar (Uttarakhand), along the foothills of the Shivalik range.
  • Background: Three sanctuaries in the Uttarakhand i.e. Rajaji, Motichur and Chila were amalgamated into a large protected area and named Rajaji National Park in the year 1983 after the famous freedom fighter C. Rajgopalachari; popularly known as “Rajaji”.
  • Features:
    • This area is the North Western Limit of habitat of Asian elephants.
    • Forest types include sal forests, riverine forests, broad–leaved mixed forests, scrubland and grassy.
    • It was declared a Tiger Reserve in 2015.
    • It is home to the Van Gujjars tribes in the winters.

Way Forward

• Addressing Disease Transmission Risks: Implement stringent health screening and quarantine protocols for captive animals before introducing them into tiger habitats.
• Balancing Welfare and Conservation: Develop guidelines and management plans that prioritise species conservation and minimise disruptions to natural habitats while also considering the welfare of individual animals.
• Enhancing Oversight and Evaluation: Strengthen monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, building on the cautious approach outlined in the 2016 guidelines. Ensure that the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts thorough assessments of every "recovered/treated animal" before approving their placement in safari parks.
• Aligning with Conservation Goals: Foster dialogue between conservation organisations, government agencies, and legal authorities to ensure that policies and practices support long-term conservation efforts while upholding ethical standards.
• Sustainable Tourism Management: Implement sustainable tourism practices to reduce the impact of tourist crowds on tiger reserves. Explore options such as visitor quotas, diversified tourist activities, and improved infrastructure to manage visitor traffic more effectively.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims:

Q1. Consider the following pairs: (2013)

	National Park	River flowing through Park
1.	Corbett National Park	Ganga
2.	Kaziranga National Park	Manas
3.	Silent Valley National Park	Kaveri

Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3
(d) None

Ans: (d)

Q.2 Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”? (2020)

(a) Corbett
(b) Ranthambore
(c) Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam
(d) Sundarbans

Ans: C

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Mains:

Q. “Policy contradictions among various competing sectors and stakeholders have resulted in inadequate ‘protection and prevention of degradation’ to the environment.” Comment with relevant illustrations. (2018)

Snakebite Envenoming

For Prelims: Snakebite Envenoming, National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAP-SE), ‘One Health’ approach, World Health Organisation (WHO), Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD)

For Mains: Snakebite Envenoming, One Health Approach

Source: PIB

Why in News?

Recently, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has launched a National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAP-SE), under the ‘One Health’ approach.

What is the National Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming (NAP-SE)?

• About:
  • The NAP-SE provides a broad framework for management, prevention and control of Snakebite envenoming in India.
  • This NAP-SE echoes the global voice of reducing the deaths due to snakebite envenoming by half and envisages all strategic components, roles and responsibilities of concerned stakeholders.
  • The NAP-SE is a guidance document for the states/UTs and stakeholders to develop their own action plan, specific to their needs and aims at systematic reduction of snakebite envenoming risk through sustained availability of anti-snake venom, capacity building, referral mechanism and public education.
• Aim:
  • To prevent and control snakebite envenoming in order to halve the numbers of deaths and cases of disability that it causes by 2030.
  • To progressively reduce the morbidity, mortality and its associated complications in humans due to Snake bite.
• Strategic Actions:
  • Human Health: The strategic action for human health component includes ensuring provision of anti snake venom at all health facilities, strengthening surveillance of snakebite cases and deaths in humans.
    • Strengthening of emergency care services at District Hospitals/ CHCs including services for ambulances, institutionalisation of Regional Venom Centre’s and inter-sectoral coordination.
  • Wildlife Health: The strategic action for wildlife health component includes education awareness, antivenom distribution, strengthening of the key stakeholders, systematic research and monitoring and snake venom collection and snake relocation.
  • Animal and Agriculture Component: The strategic action for animal and agriculture component includes prevention of snakebites in livestock, community engagement etc.

What is Snakebites Envenoming (SE)?

• About:
  • Snakebite Envenoming (SE) is classified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) as a High-Priority Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD).
  • SE is a potentially life-threatening disease that typically results from the injection of a mixture of different toxins (venom) following the bite of a Venomous Snake.
    • It can also be caused by having venom sprayed into the eyes by certain species of snakes that have the ability to spit venom as a defence measure.
  • Snakebite poses a significant daily health risk in rural tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, the Middle East, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America, particularly for the hundreds of millions of people in rural and peri-urban communities reliant on agriculture and subsistence activities for survival.
• Impact:
  • Many snakebite victims, mostly in developing countries, suffer from long-term complications such as deformities, contractures, amputations, visual impairment, renal complications and psychological distress.
• Prevalence:
  • In India, around 50,000 deaths occur of an estimated 3-4 million snake bites annually which accounts for half of all snakebite deaths globally.
    • Only a small proportion of snake bite victims across countries report to the clinics and hospitals and actual burden of snake bite is grossly underreported.
  • As per the Central Bureau of Health Investigation (CBHI) reports (2016-2020), the average annual frequency of snakebite cases in India is around 3 lakhs and about 2000 deaths occur due to snakebite envenoming.
  • In India, around 90% of snake bites are caused by the 'big four' among the crawlers - common krait, Indian cobra, Russell's viper and saw scaled viper.
• WHO’s Roadmap for SE:
  • WHO launched its roadmap in 2019 with an aim to halve death and disability from snakebite by 2030.
    • In order to create a sustainable market for antivenoms there is a need for a 25% increase in the number of competent manufacturers by 2030.
    • WHO has planned a pilot project to create a global antivenom stockpile.
    • Integrating snakebite treatment and response into national health plans in affected countries, including better training of health personnel and educating communities.
• Indian Initiatives:
  • Much before the WHO roadmap was launched, researchers from Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) started community awareness and health system capacity building from the year 2013.
  • In alignment with WHO's Snakebite Envenoming Strategy and the United Nations' Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, India ratified a National Action Plan in 2015 to combat this issue.

What is the One Health Concept?

• One Health is an approach that recognises that the health of people is closely connected to the health of animals and our shared environment.
• One Health’ vision derives its blueprint from the agreement between the tripartite-plus alliance comprising the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE).
• It’s purpose is to encourage collaborations in research and sharing of knowledge at multiple levels across various disciplines like human health, animal health, plants, soil, environmental and ecosystem health in ways that improve, protect and defend the health of all species.

What are Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs)?

• NTDs are a group of infections that are most common among marginalized communities in the developing regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas.
• They are caused by a variety of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa and parasitic worms.
• NTDs are especially common in tropical areas where people do not have access to clean water or safe ways to dispose of human waste.
• These diseases generally receive less funding for research and treatment than malaises like tuberculosis, HIV-AIDS and malaria.
  • Examples of NTDs are: snakebite envenomation, scabies, yaws, trachoma, Leishmaniasis and Chagas disease etc.

Read more: Snake Venom Neutralising Antibody

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? (2019)

1. Genetic predisposition of some people
2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming
4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (b)

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Mains

Q. Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved. (2014)

Rural Digital Empowerment

Source: PIB

The Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF), under the Department of Telecommunications (DoT), has signed a tripartite MoU with Prasar Bharati and Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) to democratise digital services access in rural India.

• The tripartite MoU aims to expand affordable and accessible digital services nationwide, leveraging the BharatNet infrastructure under USOF.
• USOF's role in providing high-speed broadband in Gram Panchayats and villages will complement Prasar Bharati's OTT platform, offering linear channels, Live TV, and on-demand content.
• Prasar Bharati will curate content for its OTT platform, utilising its extensive legacy, consumer reach, and brand recognition.
• ONDC will contribute technical expertise and infrastructure for enabling digital commerce in various sectors, expanding beyond e-commerce to include education, health, finance, and agriculture.

Read more: Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF), Prasar Bharati, ONDC and its Potential

Vocal for Local initiative

Source: PIB

Recently, the NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) launched the 'Vocal for Local' initiative under its Aspirational Blocks Programme (ABP).

• Initiative aims to boost sustainable growth by showcasing indigenous products through 'Aakanksha.' A dedicated window on the GeM portal facilitates e-commerce for local products.
  • As a part of this initiative, indigenous local products from 500 Aspirational Blocks have been mapped and consolidated under Aakanksha.
• The CEO of NITI Aayog urged district collectors and block-level officials to collaborate with partners such as Government e-Marketplace (GeM) and Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) to facilitate sustainable growth of microenterprises in Aspirational Blocks.
• The ABP is a development initiative announced in the Union Budget 2022-23, it aims to provide direction, guidance, and support for social and economic advancement in the most underdeveloped regions in India and to direct development benefits towards marginalised and vulnerable sections of the population.

Read more: Aspirational Blocks Programme

PB-SHABD

Source: PIB

• Union Minister of Information and Broadcasting launched the Prasar Bharti - Shared Audio Visuals for Broadcast and Dissemination (PB-SHABD), a news-sharing service from Prasar Bharati, aimed at transforming news dissemination in India.
• PB-SHABD will serve as a single-point source of news content for smaller news organisations lacking extensive networks.
• SHABD service is offered free for the first year, providing news stories in major Indian languages across fifty categories.
• The minister highlighted the revamped platforms for Doordarshan News and Akashvani News, and updated News on the Air mobile app, emphasising their role in democratising access to news and fostering collaboration within the media industry.
• Prasar Bharati is India’s largest public broadcasting agency. It is a statutory autonomous body set up by the Prasar Bharati Act, 1997.
  • The Prasar Bharati Corporation’s main objective is to provide autonomy to Doordarshan and Akashvani to “educate and entertain the public.

Read more: Broadcasting only through Prasar Bharati

Marine Security Belt 2024

Source: ET

Iran, Russia, and China began a joint naval drill in the Gulf of Oman. The drill, called "Marine Security Belt 2024". The drill, which includes warships and aviation, is their fourth joint military exercise since 2019.

• Naval representatives from Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Oman, India, and South Africa are acting as observers during the exercise.
• The Gulf of Oman is a western extension of the Arabian Sea and is situated in the Middle East between the countries of Iran, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates.
• The Gulf connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz, which then empties into the Persian Gulf.
  • The Gulf of Oman is bordered by Pakistan and Iran in the north; by the United Arab Emirates in the west and by Oman in the south.

Read more: China-Iran Strategic Cooperation Pact