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Global Burden of Cancer: WHO

For Prelims: Global Burden of Cancer: WHO, World Cancer Day (4^th February), Cancer.

For Mains: Global Burden of Cancer: WHO, Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

Source: DTE

Why in News?

Ahead of World Cancer Day (4^th February), the World Health Organization (WHO)’s cancer agency, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), released the latest estimates of the Global Burden of Cancer in 2022.

• The IARC estimates highlighted the growing burden of cancer, the disproportionate impact on underserved populations, and the urgent need to address cancer inequities worldwide.

What are the Key Highlights of the Global Burden of Cancer in 2022 by WHO?

• Global Burden:
  • In 2022, there were an estimated 20 million new cancer cases and 9.7 million deaths.
  • The estimated number of people alive within 5 years following a cancer diagnosis was 53.5 million.
    • About 1 in 5 people develop cancer in their lifetime.
• Common Cancer Types:
  • 10 types of cancer collectively comprised around two-thirds of new cases and deaths globally in 2022.
  • Lung cancer was the most commonly occurring cancer worldwide with 2.5 million new cases accounting for 12.4% of the total new cases.
  • Female breast cancer ranked second (2.3 million cases, 11.6%), followed by colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, and stomach cancer.
• Leading Causes of Death:
  • Lung cancer was the leading cause of cancer death (1.8 million deaths, 18.7% of the total cancer deaths) followed by colorectal cancer (900 000 deaths, 9.3%), liver cancer, breast cancer and stomach cancer.
    • Lung cancer’s re-emergence as the most common cancer is likely related to persistent tobacco use in Asia.
• Cancer Inequities:
  • There have been striking inequities in the cancer burden according to human development. This is particularly true for breast cancer.
  • In countries with a very high HDI (Human Development Index), 1 in 12 women will be diagnosed with breast cancer in their lifetime and 1 in 71 women die of it.
    • By contrast, in countries with a low HDI; while only one in 27 women is diagnosed with breast cancer in their lifetime, one in 48 women will die from it.
  • Women in lower HDI countries are 50% less likely to be diagnosed with breast cancer than women in high HDI countries, yet they are at a much higher risk of dying of the disease due to late diagnosis and inadequate access to quality treatment.
• Projected Burden Increase:
  • Over 35 million new cancer cases are predicted in 2050, a 77% increase from the estimated 20 million cases in 2022.
  • The rapidly growing global cancer burden reflects both population ageing and growth, as well as changes to people’s exposure to risk factors, several of which are associated with socioeconomic development.
    • Tobacco, alcohol and obesity are key factors behind the increasing incidence of cancer, with air pollution still a key driver of environmental risk factors.
  • In terms of the absolute burden, high HDI countries are expected to experience the greatest absolute increase in incidence, with an additional 4.8 million new cases predicted in 2050 compared with 2022 estimates.
• Call for Action:
  • There is an urgent need for major investments to address global inequities in cancer outcomes and to ensure access to affordable, quality cancer care for all individuals regardless of their geographical location or socioeconomic status.

What are the Key Findings Related to India?

• India reported 1,413,316 new cases in 2022 with a higher proportion of female patients — 691,178 men and 722,138 women.
• Breast cancer had the highest proportion in the country, with 192,020 new cases, accounting for 13.6% of all patients and over 26% in women.
• In India, breast cancer was followed by lip and oral cavity (143,759 new cases, 10.2%), cervix and uterine, lung, and oesophagal cancers.
  • A recent study by WHO assessing the cancer burden in Asia, published in The Lancet Regional Health, found that India alone accounted for 32.9% of global deaths and 28.1% of new cases of lip and oral cavity cancer in 2019.
  • This was on account of the widespread consumption of smokeless tobacco (SMT) such as khaini, gutkha, betel quid and paan masala in South Asian countries like India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Worldwide, SMT is responsible for 50% of the oral cancer burden.
• As per the Lancet Global Health 2023, India accounted for 23% of deaths that occurred due to cervical cancer globally.
  • In India, cervical cancer’s five-year survival rate was 51.7%. However, survival rates in India are lower compared to high-income countries such as the United States.

What are the Key Facts Related to World Cancer Day?

• About:
  • World Cancer Day is an international awareness day led by the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) celebrated on 4th February every year.
    • Cancer is caused by an uncontrolled, abnormal growth of cells in the body that causes lump or tumour in most causes.
  • It was first celebrated on 4th February 2000 at the World Summit Against Cancer for the New Millennium in Paris.
    • The Paris Charter's mission is to promote research, prevent cancer, improve patient services, raise awareness and mobilise the global community to make progress against cancer, and includes the adoption of World Cancer Day.
• Theme 2024:
  • Close the Care Gap.
    • The theme aims to mobilise the necessary attention and resources to ensure that the rising burden of cancer can be addressed in an equal manner across the globe and that all people in the world have access to systematic testing, and early diagnosis and treatment.

Cancer

• It is a complex and broad term used to describe a group of diseases characterised by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body.
  • These abnormal cells, known as cancer cells, have the ability to invade and destroy healthy tissues and organs.
• In a healthy body, cells grow, divide, and die in a regulated manner, allowing for the normal functioning of tissues and organs.
  • However, in the case of cancer, certain genetic mutations or abnormalities disrupt this normal cell cycle, causing cells to divide and grow uncontrollably.

Cervical Cancer

• Cervical cancer develops in a woman's cervix (the entrance to the uterus from the vagina).
• Almost all cervical cancer cases (99%) are linked to infection with high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPV), an extremely common virus transmitted through sexual contact.
  • Two HPV types (16 and 18) are responsible for nearly 50% of high grade cervical pre-cancers.
• Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women globally. About 90% of the new cases and deaths worldwide in 2020 occurred in low- and middle-income countries.

What are the Government Initiatives related to Cancer?

• The interim Budget 2024-25 encouraged the vaccination of girls aged 9-14 years to prevent cervical cancer.
• National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke
• National Cancer Grid
• National Cancer Awareness Day
• HPV Vaccine

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Q 1. Consider the following statements: (2010)

1. The Taxus tree is naturally found in the Himalayas.
2. The Taxus tree is listed in the Red Data Book.
3. A drug called “taxol” is obtained from Taxus trees and is effective against Parkinson’s disease.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (b)

---

Mains:

Q.1 What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society? (2021)

Q.2 What do you understand by nanotechnology and how is it helping in health sector? (2020)

Q.3 Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has this activity benefitted the field of biopharma? (2018)

Q.4 Stemcelltherapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments? (2017)

Delimitation

For Prelims: Delimitation, Delimitation Commission Act 1952, Constitution of India, Delimitation Commission, 15th Finance Commission, ECI.

For Mains: Need for Delimitation and Related Concerns.

Source: TH

Why in News?

The Delimitation of constituencies for the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies is to be carried out on the basis of the First Census after 2026.

• The 2021 Census was originally postponed due to the Covid-19 pandemic and subsequently due to delays on the part of the Central government.

What is Delimitation?

• About:
  • Delimitation means the process of fixing the number of seats and boundaries of territorial constituencies in each State for the Lok Sabha and Legislative assemblies.
    • It also includes determining the seats to be reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in these houses.
  • This ‘delimitation process’ is performed by the ‘Delimitation Commission’ that is set up under an act of Parliament.
    • Delimitation Commissions have been set up four times — 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002 under the Acts of 1952, 1962, 1972 and 2002.
      • The first delimitation exercise was carried out by the President (with the help of the Election Commission) in 1950-51.
• History:
  • The last delimitation exercise that changed the state-wise composition of the Lok Sabha was completed in 1976 and done on the basis of the 1971 census.
  • The Constitution of India mandates that the allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha should be based on the population of each state so that the ratio of seats to population is as close as possible to being equal across all states. It is intended to ensure that each person's vote carries roughly the same weight, regardless of which state they live in.
    • However, this provision meant that states that took little intersst in population control could end up with a greater number of seats in Parliament.
  • To avoid these consequences, the Constitution was amended 42^nd Amendment Act of 1976 froze the allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha to the states and the division of each state into territorial constituencies till the year 2000 at the 1971 level.
  • The 84^th Amendment Act of 2001 empowered the government to undertake readjustment and rationalisation of territorial constituencies in the states on the basis of the population figures of 1991 census.
  • The 87^th Amendment Act of 2003 provided for the delimitation of constituencies on the basis of 2001 census and not 1991 census.
    • However, this can be done without altering the number of seats allotted to each state in the Lok Sabha.
• Constitutional Provisions:
  • Under Article 82, the Parliament enacts a Delimitation Act after every Census.
  • Under Article 170, States also get divided into territorial constituencies as per Delimitation Act after every Census.

What is the Significance of Delimitation?

• Representation:
  • Delimitation ensures fair representation in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies by adjusting the number of seats based on population changes.
  • This is crucial for upholding the democratic principle of "one citizen-one vote-one value."
• Equity:
  • By readjusting the boundaries of territorial constituencies, delimitation aims to ensure equitable distribution of seats among different regions, considering population shifts over time.
  • This helps prevent underrepresentation or overrepresentation of specific areas.
• Reserved Seats for SC/ST:
  • Delimitation determines the allocation of reserved seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in accordance with constitutional provisions, ensuring adequate political representation for marginalized communities.
• Federalism:
  • Delimitation impacts federal principles by influencing the distribution of political power among states. It is essential to strike a balance between population-based representation and federal considerations to maintain harmony among diverse regions.
• Population Control Measures:
  • Historically, the freezing of seats based on the 1971 Census aimed to incentivize population control measures. However, the impending delimitation exercise raises questions about the effectiveness and implications of this policy in the context of changing demographics.

What are the Concerns Related to Delimitation?

• Regional Disparity:
  • Disparity in representation between north and southern part of India in the Lok sabha due to population as a deciding factor.
  • The delimitation based solely on population disregards the progress made by the southern states in population control and may lead to disparities in the federal structure.
    • Despite having only 18% of the country's population, the southern states contribute 35% to the country's GDP.
  • The northern states, which did not prioritise population control, are expected to benefit in the delimitation process due to their higher population growth.
• Inadequate Funding:
  • After the 15th Finance Commission used the 2011 Census as a basis for its recommendation, concerns were raised about southern states losing funding and representation in parliament.
  • Previously, the 1971 Census was used as the base for funding and tax devolution recommendations to states.
• Affecting the Reservations for SCs/ STs:
  • The scheduled delimitation and reallocation of seats may result in not only a loss of seats for southern states but also an increase in power for political parties with their base of support in the north.
    • This could potentially lead to a shift of power toward the north and away from the south.
  • The exercise will also affect the division of seats reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in each state (under Articles 330 and 332).

What are the International Practices Related to Delimitation?

• In the US:
  • The number of seats in the House of Representatives (the equivalent of our Lok Sabha) has been capped at 435 since 1913.
  • The population of the country has increased almost four times from 9.4 crore in 1911 to an estimated 33.4 crore in 2023. The seats among the States are redistributed after every Census through the ‘method of equal proportion’. This does not result in any significant gain or loss for any of the States.
    • For example, based on the Census of 2020, the reapportionment has resulted in no change in the number of seats for 37 States.
• European Union (EU):
  • In the EU Parliament which consists of 720 members, the number of seats is divided between 27 member countries based on the principle of ‘degressive proportionality’.
  • Under this principle, the ratio of population to the number of seats shall increase as the population increases.
    • For example, Denmark with a population of around 60 lakh has 15 seats (average population of 4 lakh per member) as against Germany with a population of 8.3 crore having 96 seats (average population of 8.6 lakh per member).

What is the Delimitation Commission?

• Appointment:
  • The Commission is appointed by the President of India and works in collaboration with the Election Commission of India.
• Composition:
  • Retired Supreme Court judge
  • Chief Election Commissioner
  • Respective State Election Commissioners
• Functions:
  • To determine the number and boundaries of constituencies to make the population of all constituencies nearly equal.
  • To identify seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, wherever their population is relatively large.
• Powers:
  • In case of a difference of opinion among members of the Commission, the opinion of the majority prevails.
  • The Delimitation Commission in India is a high-power body whose orders have the force of law and cannot be called in question before any court.

Way Forward

• There is a need to balance democratic representation with federal considerations. Suggestions include capping the number of Lok Sabha seats while increasing the number of MLAs based on population, alongside empowering local bodies for grassroots democracy.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Q. With reference to the Delimitation Commission consider the following statements: (2012)

1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modification in the orders.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Ans: (c)

Diamond Jubilee of the Supreme Court

For Prelims: Supreme Court of India, Indian Constitution, Digital Courts 2.0, Government of India Act of 1935, Chief Justice of India, Eligibility Criteria for Appointment of Judges of SC, Removal of Judges, Independence of SC

For Mains: Current Major Issues Related to the Supreme Court, Collegium System, NJAC.

Source: PIB

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court of India (SC) held its Diamond Jubilee Celebration (75^th anniversary) at the Supreme Court Auditorium in Delhi. It also coincides with the 75th anniversary of the Indian Constitution.

• The event witnessed the launch of several citizen-centric information and technology initiatives aimed at enhancing judicial accessibility and transparency.

What are the Major Highlights of the Event?

• Digital initiatives, including the Digital Supreme Court Reports (Digi SCR) and Digital Courts 2.0 and a revamped SC website were launched as a part of the event.
  • The Digital Supreme Court Reports (Digi SCR) initiative aims to provide free, electronic access to Supreme Court judgments since 1950, fostering transparency and accessibility.
  • Digital Courts 2.0, leveraging AI for real-time transcription of court proceedings, represents a significant leap towards efficient record-keeping and judicial processes.
  • The revamped Supreme Court website, available in bilingual format (English and Hindi), offers a user-friendly interface for seamless access to judicial information.
• Efforts to enhance accessibility to justice, particularly in remote areas, were emphasised, with a focus on expanding the reach of the Supreme Court.
• Investments in physical infrastructure, such as the expansion of the Supreme Court Building Complex, were also highlighted as crucial steps towards bolstering judicial efficiency.

What are the Key Points Related to the Supreme Court?

• Establishment: On the 28^th January 1950, two days after India became a Sovereign Democratic Republic, the Supreme Court came into being.
  • It succeeded the Federal Court of India, established under the Government of India Act of 1935.
  • However, the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is greater than that of its predecessor because it also replaced the British Privy Council as the highest court of appeal.
• Constitutional Provisions: Articles 124 to 147 in Part V of the Constitution deal with the organization, independence, jurisdiction, powers, procedures and so on of the Supreme Court.
  • The Parliament is also authorised to regulate them.
• Current Composition: The Supreme Court of India consists of 34 judges including the Chief Justice of India, all appointed by the President of India.
  • The original Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges, leaving it to Parliament to increase this number.
• Appointment: The President appoints the Chief Justice of India after consulting with select judges from the Supreme Court and High Courts.
  • Other judges are appointed by the President after consulting with the Chief Justice and additional judges from the Supreme Court and High Courts.
  • Consultation with the Chief Justice of India is mandatory for the appointment of any judge other than the Chief Justice of India.
• Eligibility Criteria for Appointment: To qualify as a Supreme Court Judge, a person must be an Indian citizen.
  • Additionally, they must have served as a Judge in a High Court for at least five years consecutively, or as an Advocate in a High Court for at least ten years consecutively, or be recognized as a distinguished jurist by the President.
  • However, the Constitution has not prescribed a minimum age for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court.
    • They retire upon reaching the age of 65 years.
    • Post-retirement, Judges are prohibited from practicing in any court or before any authority in India.
• Removal of Judges: A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his office by an order of the President.
  • The President can issue the removal order only after an address by Parliament has been presented to him in the same session for such removal.
  • The address must be supported by a special majority of each House of Parliament i.e., by a majority vote of two-thirds of members present and voting, on grounds of proven misbehavior or incapacity.
• Language of Proceedings and Regulation: Proceedings in the Supreme Court are conducted exclusively in English.
  • Supreme Court Rules, 1966, and Supreme Court Rules 2013 are framed under Article 145 of the Constitution to govern the practice and procedure of the Supreme Court.
• Independence of Supreme Court:
  • Fixed Service Conditions: Parliament determines judges' salaries, allowances, and other benefits, ensuring stability in service conditions unless altered during a financial emergency.
    • Salaries, allowances, and administrative costs are charged on the Consolidated Fund, making them non-votable by Parliament, thereby ensuring financial independence.
  • Conduct Immunity: Parliament and State Legislatures are barred from discussing judges' conduct, except during impeachment proceedings (Article 121).
  • Contempt Power: The Supreme Court has the authority to punish contempt, ensuring respect for its decisions and authority (Articles 129).
  • Staff Appointment Autonomy: The Chief Justice of India has the freedom to appoint Supreme Court staff and set their service conditions, free from executive interference.
  • Jurisdiction Protection: Parliament cannot curtail the Supreme Court's jurisdiction, although it can extend it.
  • Separation from Executive: The Constitution mandates the separation of the judiciary from the executive in public services, eliminating executive influence in judicial matters upon implementation (Article 50).
• Significance of the Supreme Court:
  • Guardian of the Constitution: The Supreme Court safeguards the Constitution, ensuring its supremacy and protecting fundamental rights by issuing writs under Article 32.
  • Upholding Rule of Law: It acts as the final arbiter of legal disputes, interpreting laws and ensuring their just application through the power of Judicial Review.
  • Social Justice and Human Rights: The court plays a vital role in promoting social justice, protecting marginalised communities, and upholding human rights..
  • Checking Executive Overreach: It serves as a check on the executive branch, ensuring its actions are within the ambit of the law.

What are the Major Issues Related to the Supreme Court?

• Pendency of Cases: One of the perennial challenges facing the Supreme Court is the backlog of cases. Despite efforts to increase efficiency, the sheer volume of cases continues to strain the court's resources.

• Judicial Activism vs. Judicial Restraint: There's an ongoing debate surrounding the appropriate role of the judiciary, with discussions on whether the Supreme Court should be more proactive in addressing social and political issues or exercise restraint and limit intervention.
• Concerns of Appointment of Judges: The process of judicial appointments, particularly the role of the Collegium system, has been a topic of contention. There have been discussions on reforms like the National Judicial Appointment Commission to make the appointment process more transparent and accountable.
• Technology and Access to Justice: While initiatives like e-filing and virtual hearings have been implemented to improve access to justice, challenges remain in ensuring equitable access, particularly for marginalised communities with limited access to technology.
• Inadequate Women Representation in SC: At the moment, only three of the Supreme Court's total judges are women. This reflects the skewed representation of women in the legal system

Way Forward

• Splitting the Supreme Court: The Tenth Law Commission of India recommended dividing the Supreme Court into two divisions: the Constitutional Division and the Legal Division.
  • According to the proposal, only matters related to constitutional law would be heard by the Constitutional Division.
  • Similarly, the Eleventh Law Commission reiterated in 1988 that splitting the Supreme Court into divisions would enhance access to justice and reduce litigants' fees.
  • Also, 229^th Law Commission Report, 2009 recommended four regional benches to be located in Delhi, Chennai or Hyderabad, Kolkata, and Mumbai to hear non-constitutional issues.
• Enhanced Judicial Sitting: The Malimath Committee proposed an increase in the Supreme Court's working days to 206 days, advocating a reduction of vacation time by 21 days to address the backlog of pending cases.
  • Similarly, the 2009 Law Commission, in its 230^th report, recommended a reduction of court vacations by 10-15 days across all levels of the judiciary to alleviate the backlog of cases.
• Revisiting the Establishment of NJAC: The NJAC Act can be amended to incorporate safeguards to ensure its constitutionality, as well as reorganized to ensure that majority control remains with the judiciary.
• Enhancing Gender Diversity in the Judiciary: Implementing a fixed percentage of female judges would foster the development of a gender-inclusive judicial system in India.
  • The upcoming appointment of Justice B.V. Nagarathna as India's first female Chief Justice of India, anticipated in September 2027, is a significant stride towards achieving gender parity within the judiciary.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (2021)

1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither I nor 2

Ans: (c)

Q. What was the exact constitutional status of India on 26th January, 1950? (2021)

(a) A Democratic Republic
(b) A Sovereign Democratic Republic
(c) A Sovereign Secular Democratic Republic
(d) A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic

Ans: (b)

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Mains

Q. Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. (2017)

Constitution (J&K) ST Order (Amendment) Bill, 2024

For Prelims: Constitution (Jammu and Kashmir) Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment) Bill, 2024, Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Municipal Bodies.

For Mains: Constitution (Jammu and Kashmir) Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment) Bill, 2024, Process and Criteria of Inclusion in the ST List.

Source: PIB

Why in News?

Recently, the Lok Sabha has passed the Constitution (Jammu and Kashmir) Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment) Bill, 2024, aiming to include specific ethnic groups and tribes from Jammu and Kashmir into the list of Scheduled Tribes.

• The Union government has also introduced the Jammu and Kashmir Local Bodies Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024 to provide reservation to Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in panchayats and Municipal Bodies of Jammu and Kashmir.

What is the Constitution (Jammu and Kashmir) Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment) Bill, 2024?

• About:
  • The bill particularly focuses on including four ethnic groups in the list of Scheduled Tribes (STs) in Jammu and Kashmir.
  • The ethnic groups are Gadda Brahmin, Koli, Paddari Tribe, and Pahari Ethnic Group”.
  • By extending Scheduled Tribe status to these communities, the bill intends to ensure their socio-economic and political empowerment.
• Significance:
  • The bill ensures that the reservations for these existing communities such as Gujjars and Bakarwals remain unaffected while providing new reservations for the newly listed STs.
    • Gujjars and Bakarwals are nomadic — they migrate with their livestock to the higher reaches in the summer, and return before the onset of winter.
  • The bill is seen as a significant step towards inclusive development in Jammu and Kashmir, aligning with the government's commitment to the holistic development of all sections and communities under the "Sabka Sath, Sabka Vishwas" (Together with All, Trust of All) mantra.

Earlier Status of Paharis

• The Paharis got 4% reservation in jobs and educational institutions in 2019.
• Also in 2019, the Justice (retd) G D Sharma Commission was appointed to identify groups that were socially, educationally, and economically backward.
  • The Commission in its report recommended ST status for Gadda Brahmins, Kolis, Paddari Tribe, and Pahari Ethnic Group.

What are the Key Features of Jammu and Kashmir Local Bodies Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024?

• Amendment of Certain Provisions: The bill aims to amend certain provisions of the J&K Panchayati Raj Act, 1989, the J&K Municipal Act, 2000, and the J&K Municipal Corporation Act, 2000 to provide reservation to OBCs in Local Bodies (panchayats and municipalities) in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Alignment with Constitutional Provisions: The proposed amendments seek to bring consistency in the laws with the provisions of the Constitution, particularly Part IX and Part IXA, which relate to Panchayats and Municipalities.
  • This includes providing reservation for backward classes of citizens in Panchayats and Municipalities, as empowered by Clause (6) of Articles 243D and 243T of the Constitution.
• Superintendence of Elections: The bill addresses inconsistencies regarding the superintendence, direction, and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of elections to Panchayats and Municipalities.
  • It ensures that the provisions regarding the State Election Commission are in line with the Constitution, specifically Articles 243K and 243ZA.
• Removal of State Election Commissioner: The bill seeks to rectify the variance between the provisions of the J&K Panchayati Raj Act, 1989, and the Constitution concerning the removal of the State Election Commissioner.
  • It aims to align the removal process with the constitutional provisions, ensuring that the State Election Commissioner can only be removed under circumstances similar to those of a Judge of a High Court.

What are the Constitutional Provisions and Initiatives related to Tribes in India?

• Constitutional Provisions:
  • As per Census-1931, Schedule tribes are termed as "backward tribes” living in the "Excluded" and "Partially Excluded" areas. The Government of India Act, 1935 called for the first time for representatives of "backward tribes" in provincial assemblies.
  • The Constitution does not define the criteria for recognition of Scheduled Tribes and hence the definition contained in 1931 Census was used in the initial years after independence.
  • However, Article 366(25) of the Constitution only provides process to define Scheduled Tribes: “Scheduled Tribes means such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this Constitution.”
    • 342(1): The President may with respect to any State or Union Territory, after consultation with the Governor, by a public notification, specify the tribes or tribal communities or part of or groups within tribes or tribal communities as Scheduled Tribe in relation to that State or Union Territory.
  • The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution lays out provision for Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
  • The Sixth Schedule deals with the administration of the tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
• Legal Provisions:
  • Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
  • Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996.
  • Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
  • Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955:
    • It prescribes punishment for the preaching and practice of Untouchability for the enforcement of any disability arising therefrom and for matters connected therewith.
• Related Initiatives:
  • TRIFED
  • Digital Transformation of Tribal Schools
  • Development of PVTGs
  • Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana
• Related Committees:
  • Xaxa Committee (2013)
  • Bhuria Commission (2002-2004): It recommended the recognition of more tribal communities as ST, thereby extending various benefits and protections to these marginalized groups.
  • Lokur Committee (1965): Its recommendations included measures to safeguard tribal land rights, improve access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities for ST communities, and enhance tribal welfare schemes to address their Socio-Economic Challenges.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question

Prelims:

Q. If a particular area is brought under the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which one of the following statements best reflects the consequence of it? (2022)

(a) This would prevent the transfer of land of tribal people to non-tribal people.

(b) This would create a local self-governing body in that area.

(c) This would convert that area into a Union Territory.

(d) The State having such areas would be declared a Special Category State.

Ans: (a)

Q. Under which Schedule of the Constitution of India can the transfer of tribal land to private parties for mining be declared null and void? (2019)

(a) Third Schedule
(b) Fifth Schedule
(c) Ninth Schedule
(d) Twelfth Schedule

Ans: (b)

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Mains:

Q. What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)? (2017)

Safeguarding Personally Identifiable Information

For Prelims: Personally Identifiable Information, Computer Emergency Response Team of India (CERT-In), Social Engineering Attacks, Privacy, Cybercrime, Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, Extended detection and response (XDR) tools.

For Mains: Data Breach, Cyber Crime, Related Challenges and Measures to Deal with it.

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs fixed a critical vulnerability in its online portal after a cybersecurity researcher reported it to the Computer Emergency Response Team of India (CERT-In).

• The vulnerability reportedly exposed Personally Identifiable Information (PII) like Aadhaar, Permanent Account Number (PAN), Voter identity, date of birth, contact number, and communication address of more than 98 lakh directors of Indian companies.

What is Personally Identifiable Information (PII)?

• About:
  • PII is any data or information maintained by an organisation or agency that can potentially be used to identify a specific individual.
    • This could include information such as Aadhaar, PAN, voter identity, passport, date of birth, contact number, communication address, and biometric information.
  • The constituents of PII vary depending on an individual’s home country.
• Types of PII:
  • PII comes in two types: direct identifiers and indirect identifiers.
    • Direct identifiers are unique to a person and include things like a passport number or driver's license number.
      • A single direct identifier is typically enough to determine someone's identity.
    • Indirect identifiers are not unique. They include more general personal details like race and place of birth. While a single indirect identifier can't identify a person, a combination can.
• Sensitive vs. Non-sensitive PII:
  • Among PII, some pieces of information are more sensitive than others.
  • Sensitive PII:
    • It is sensitive information that directly identifies an individual and could cause significant harm if leaked or stolen.
    • Sensitive PII is typically not publicly available, and most existing data privacy laws require organizations to safeguard it by encrypting it, controlling who accesses it, or taking other cybersecurity measures.
  • Non-sensitive PII:
    • It is personal data that, in isolation, would not cause significant harm to a person if leaked or stolen.
      • It may or may not be unique to a person.
    • For example, a social media handle would be non-sensitive PII. It could identify someone, but a malicious actor couldn't commit identity theft armed with only a social media account name.
    • This also includes information such as zip code, race, gender, and religion. They cannot be used to accurately identify an individual.
• Non PII:
  • Non-personally identifiable information (non-PII) is data that cannot be used on its own to trace, or identify a person. However, non-PII in tandem with additional information can be used to identify an individual.
    • Non-PII information includes photographic images (especially of the face or other identifying characteristics), place of birth, religion, geographic indicators, employment information, educational qualifications, and medical records.

What are the Risks of PII Exposure?

• Identity Theft:
  • PII exposure increases the risk of identity theft, where criminals use stolen personal information to impersonate individuals for fraudulent activities.
  • Cyberattacks and weaknesses in digital infrastructure can lead to the exposure of citizens’ PII.
• Financial Fraud:
  • Exposed PII, such as bank account numbers or credit card information, can lead to financial fraud.
    • Criminals may access bank accounts, make unauthorized transactions, commit payment fraud, and siphon funds from accounts allotted to beneficiaries of government welfare programmes, resulting in financial loss for the victim.
• Privacy Violations:
  • PII exposure can violate privacy, compromising individuals' confidentiality and autonomy.
    • Unauthorized access to personal information can result in stalking, harassment, or intrusion into individuals' private lives.
• Phishing and Social Engineering Attacks:
  • Cybercriminals may use exposed PII to conduct phishing attacks, tricking individuals into disclosing further sensitive information or clicking on malicious links.
    • Social engineering attacks, such as impersonation scams or pretexting, exploit exposed PII to manipulate individuals into revealing confidential data or granting unauthorized access.
• Data Breach Fallout:
  • PII exposure often occurs through data breaches, leading to significant financial losses, remediation costs, and damage to the organization's reputation.
    • Organizations may suffer from diminished customer trust, decreased revenue, and increased scrutiny from regulators and stakeholders.
• Reputation Damage:
  • Exposure of sensitive PII, such as compromising photos or personal messages, can damage individuals' reputations and relationships.
    • Information leaked online may be used for blackmail, extortion, or public humiliation, leading to social and professional consequences.

Instances of Data Breach in Past:

• CoWIN Data Breach Allegations:
  • Reports emerged about a Telegram bot returning the personal data of Indian citizens registered on the CoWIN portal.
    • A similar data breach was reported when an American cybersecurity company claimed the PII of 815 million Indian citizens, including Aadhaar numbers and passport details, were being sold on the dark web.
    • The Indian government denied allegations of biometric data leaks and CoWIN portal breaches and stated that the CoWIN website is safe and has adequate safeguards for data privacy.
• Aadhaar:
  • Aadhaar data leaks were also reported in 2018, 2019, and 2022, with three instances of large-scale leaks being reported, including one in which farmer’s data stored on the PM Kisan website was made available on the dark web.
• RailYatri Platform Data Breach:
  • A data breach was also reported in the RailYatri platform in January 2023.
• Increase in Cyberattacks on Government and Essential Services:
  • Additionally, 67% of Indian government and essential services organisations experienced over a 50% increase in disruptive cyberattacks, a report from Resecurity (an American cybersecurity company) said.
  • Furthermore, a survey of 200 IT decision-makers noted that 45% of Indian businesses experienced more than a 50% increase in cyberattacks.

Provisions Related to Data Governance in India:

• Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021.
• Justice K. S. Puttaswamy (Retd) vs Union of India 2017.
• Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023:
  • Regulates the processing of personal data in India. The act applies to both online and offline data collection and processing, including activities outside India if they involve offering goods or services in India.
• Computer Emergency Response Team - India (CERT-In):
  • In the Information Technology Amendment Act 2008, CERT-In has been designated to serve as the national agency to perform several functions in the area of cyber security: Collection, analysis and dissemination of information on cyber incidents also issue alerts on cybersecurity incidents.
    • It is an organisation of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.
    • CERT-In's objectives include: Preventing cyber attacks against the country's cyberspace, Responding to cyber attacks and minimizing damage and recovery.

What are the Challenges in Protecting PII?

• Diverse Sources:
  • PII may be stored and processed across multiple locations due to the growth of cloud computing and SaaS services.
• Increasing Data Volume:
  • The amount of sensitive data stored in public clouds is projected to double by 2024, posing challenges in ensuring its security.
• Evolving Threat Landscape:
  • Cybercriminals employ various techniques, including social engineering attacks and purchasing data on the dark web, to steal PII.
• Complex Regulatory Environment:
  • Organizations must navigate different data privacy regulations and tailor their protection measures accordingly.

Way Forward

• Encryption:
  • Employ encryption techniques to protect PII, regardless of the data's state whether it is at rest in a database, in transit across the internet, or even in use.
• Identity and Access Management (IAM):
  • Utilize two-factor or multifactor authentication and zero-trust architecture (ZTA) to limit access to sensitive data.
    • ZTA is based on the principle of “never trust, always verify.” It requires organisations to verify the identity of each user and continuously monitor user behaviour for malicious activity.
• Training:
  • Provide employees with training on handling and protecting PII, including anti-phishing and social engineering awareness.
• Anonymization:
  • Anonymize sensitive data to remove identifying characteristics.
• Cybersecurity Tools:
  • Deploy data loss prevention (DLP) and extended detection and response (XDR) tools for tracking and detecting PII misuse.
    • XDR tools are security tools that gather data from across a network and manage automated responses to threats.
• Collaboration and Partnerships:
  • Collaborate with cybersecurity experts, regulatory bodies, and industry peers to stay informed about emerging threats and best practices in PII protection.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Prelims

Q1. ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India? (2021)

(a) Article 15
(b) Article 19
(c) Article 21
(d) Article 29

Ans: (c)

Q.2 In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents? (2017)

1. Service providers
2. Data centres
3. Body corporate

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (d)

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Mains

Q. What are the different elements of cyber security ? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy. (2022)

Cameroon Adopts Nagoya Protocol

Source: DTE

Why in News?

Cameroon, located in central Africa and boasting a rich biodiversity with around 11,000 species of plants, animals, and microorganisms, has recently adopted the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing, an agreement under the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD).

• The Nagoya Protocol aims to promote the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.

What was the Need for Cameroon to Adopt Nagoya Protocol?

• Preserving Traditional Knowledge:
  • Many of plants, animals and microorganisms contain useful genetic information or genetic resources, such as genes for producing medicines or crops. The knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities related to these resources are called traditional knowledge.
• Preventing Biopiracy and Equal Sharing of Resources:
  • Both genetic resources and traditional knowledge are valuable for bioprospecting, which is the exploration of biological material for new sources of drugs, food or other products. Bioprospecting can also help to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity. For Example:
    • Prunus Africana, a plant endemic to Cameroon, is used to make drugs for prostate cancer but foreign companies buy a kilogramme of it USD 2.11 and sell the drugs made from it for USD 405.
    • Cameroon’s Bush Mango is a wealth of medical properties. The leaves, roots and bark are used to treat scabs and skin pain. The fruit has attracted the interest of European pharmaceutical and cosmetic companies.
• Benefiting Local Communities:
  • None of the companies’ profits benefited the communities where the plants were harvested.
  • Adopting the Nagoya Protocol aids in safeguarding the rights and interests of indigenous and local communities while fostering innovation and development based on biodiversity.

What is the Nagoya Protocol Under UNCBD?

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
  • The CBD, a legally binding treaty to conserve biodiversity has been in force since 1993 which has 3 main objectives:
    • The conservation of biological diversity.
    • The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
    • The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
  • Nearly all countries have ratified it (notably, the US has signed but not ratified).
    • India enacted Biological Diversity Act, 2002 for giving effect to the provisions of the CBD.
  • The CBD Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada and it operates under the United Nations Environment Programme.
  • The Parties (Countries) under Convention of Biodiversity (CBD), meet at regular intervals and these meetings are called Conference of Parties (COP).
  • In 2000, a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted. 
    • The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
• Nagoya Protocol:
  • The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan at COP10.
  • It not only applies to genetic resources that are covered by the CBD, and to the benefits arising from their utilization but also covers traditional knowledge (TK) associated with genetic resources that are covered by the CBD and the benefits arising from its utilization.
  • Along with the Nagoya Protocol on Genetic Resources, the COP-10 also adopted a ten-year framework for action by all countries to save biodiversity.
    • Officially known as “Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020”, it provided a set of 20 ambitious yet achievable targets collectively known as the Aichi Targets for biodiversity.
    • The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) was adopted during the 15^th Conference of Parties.
      • The Framework includes four goals to be achieved by 2050 and twenty-three targets set for 2030.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Q. “Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by (2018)

(a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 
(b) The UNEP Secretariat
(c) The UNFCCC Secretariat
(d) The World Meteorological Organisation

Ans: (c)

Q. What is/are the importance/importances of the ‘ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification' ? (2016)

1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships.
2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of major portions of financial resources to these regions.
3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating the desertification.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (c)

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Mains:

Q.1 How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in conservation of flora and fauna? (2018)

Q.2 What is meant by ‘environmental ethics’? Why is it important to study? Discuss any one environmental issue from the viewpoint of environmental ethics. (2015)

Blue Economy 2.0

Source: DTE

Why in News?

The recent presentation of the Interim Budget included a significant emphasis on advancing Blue Economy 2.0 through the introduction of a novel scheme focused on restoration, adaptation measures, coastal aquaculture, and mariculture, employing an integrated and multi-sectoral strategy.

What is the Blue Economy?

• About:
  • Blue economy refers to the sustainable use of marine resources for exploration, economic growth, improved livelihoods, and transport while preserving the health of marine and coastal ecosystems.
  • In India, the blue economy encompasses a wide range of sectors, including shipping, tourism, fisheries, and offshore oil and gas exploration.
  • This is reflected in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14), which calls to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.
• Necessity for Blue Economy:
  • India has a vast coastline of 7500 km, and its exclusive economic zones (EEZ) extend over 2.2 million square km. Also, India is home to 12 major ports, over 200 other ports, 30 shipyards and a comprehensive hub of diverse maritime service providers.
  • It advocates the greening of ocean development strategies for higher productivity and conservation of the ocean's health.
  • Oceans cover three-quarters of the Earth’s surface, contain 97% of the Earth’s water, and represent 99% of the living area on the planet.
• Growth Prospects:
  • The global ocean economy is currently valued at approximately USD 1.5 trillion annually, ranking it as the world's seventh-largest economy. Projections indicate that it will double by 2030, reaching USD 3 trillion.
    • The total value of ocean assets, also known as natural capital, has been estimated at USD 24 trillion.

What is Blue Economy 2.0?

• About:
  • This is aimed at promoting climate-resilient activities and sustainable development in coastal areas.
  • With marine ecosystems facing unprecedented threats from climate change, pollution, and overexploitation, there is an urgent need for coordinated action to safeguard the health and resilience of ocean resources.
• Components:
  • Restoration and Adaptation:
    • Central to the scheme are measures aimed at restoration and adaptation, which will involve restoring degraded coastal ecosystems and implementing adaptation strategies to mitigate the effects of rising sea levels and extreme weather events.
    • These efforts are crucial for preserving biodiversity, protecting coastal communities, and maintaining the ecosystem services provided by marine habitats.
  • Expansion of Coastal Aquaculture and Mariculture:
    • Blue Economy 2.0 scheme will focus on the expansion of coastal aquaculture and mariculture, which play a vital role in meeting the growing demand for seafood while reducing pressure on wild fish stocks.
    • By promoting sustainable aquaculture practices and integrating them with other sectors such as tourism and renewable energy, the scheme aims to create economic opportunities for coastal communities while ensuring the long-term viability of marine resources.
  • Integrated and Multi-Sectoral Approach:
    • The integrated and multi-sectoral approach adopted by the Blue Economy 2.0 scheme recognises the interconnectedness of various sectors and the need for coordinated action across government departments, industries, and civil society.
    • By fostering collaboration and partnership, the scheme seeks to harness the collective efforts of stakeholders to achieve sustainable development goals in coastal areas.

What are the Key Government Initiatives Related to the Blue Economy?

• Deep Ocean Mission
• Sagarmala project
• O-SMART
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management
• NavIC
• India-Norway Task Force on Blue Economy for Sustainable Development
• National Fisheries Policy

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year’s Question (PYQs)

Prelims:

Q. What is blue carbon?

(a) Carbon captured by oceans and coastal ecosystems
(b) Carton sequestered in forest biomass and agricultural soils
(c) Carbon contained in petroleum and natural gas
(d) Carbon present in atmosphere

Ans: (a)

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Mains:

Q. Defining blue revolution, explain the problems and strategies for pisciculture development in India. (2018)

Maa Kamakhya Divya Pariyojana

Source: PIB

Recently, the Indian Prime Minister laid the foundation stone of Maa Kamakhya Divya Pariyojana (Maa Kamakhya Access Corridor).

• It has been sanctioned under the Prime Minister’s Development Initiative for North Eastern Region (PM-DevINE) scheme.
• Situated on the Nilachal hills in Guwahati, Assam, Kamakhya temple is a significant pilgrimage centre.
• The temple is dedicated to different forms of Mother Shakti, namely Sundari, Tripura, Tara, Bhuvaneshvari, Bagalamukhi and Chinnamasta.
• Ambubachi Mela is one of the major festivals of this temple. The festival is held every year to commemorate the yearly menstruation of Goddess Kamakhya.

GRAPES-3 Experiment

Source: Phys.org

The GRAPES-3 experiment in Ooty, India, operated by the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research has discovered a new feature in the cosmic-ray proton spectrum.

• It was observed at about 166 tera-electron-volt (TeV) energy while measuring the spectrum spanning from 50 TeV to a little over 1 peta-electron-volt (PeV).
  • "GRAPES-3 experiment discovers new feature above 100 TeV but below the cosmic-ray proton "Knee," suggesting a deviation from single power-law spectrum."
• The observed feature suggests a potential re-evaluation of our understanding of cosmic-ray sources, acceleration mechanisms, and their propagation within our galaxy.
  • Centuries-old discovery, cosmic rays are the universe's most energetic particles, bombarding Earth uniformly from all directions, inducing fast-moving particle showers comprising electrons, photons, muons, protons, neutrons, etc.
    • Cosmic rays exhibit a broad energy range (10^8 to 10^20 eV) with a steeply decreasing flux based on a power law.

Read more: Cosmic Rays

EU Sets New Climate Goal for 2040

Source: DTE

The European Union (EU) has recently introduced its new proposed 2040 climate goal, outlining a net emissions reduction target of 90% by 2040 compared to the 1990 baseline levels.

• EU's previous goal set in September 2020 aimed at cutting greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 55% below 1990 levels by 2030, which was later enshrined in the EU Climate Law along with a commitment to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050.
  • To accompany the target, the European Commission released a “Fit for 55” package in 2021, which provided a set of proposals to achieve the 2030 reduction target.
• The latest 2024 proposal is an interim step required by the EU Climate Law, which outlines a process to develop a 2040 target within six months of the first Global Stocktake (GST), which concluded at the 28^th CoP to the UNFCCC in Dubai.
  • The proposal highlights the need for a significant reduction in coal usage by 2040, with natural gas expected to decline rapidly, and oil being the last to be phased out. However, some fossil fuels will remain in use for non-energy purposes and long-distance transport.
• Critics argue that the proposed targets fail to address the EU's historical emissions burden adequately.
• Heavy reliance on carbon capture and CO₂ removal technologies raises concerns about the ambition and effectiveness of the target.

Read more: 28th Conference of Parties To the UNFCCC, European Union (EU)

UPI Goes Global from Eiffel Tower

Source: TH

Recently, Unified Payments Interface (UPI) was formally launched at India's Republic Day celebration in Paris, France, at the iconic Eiffel Tower.

• This event marks a significant step towards globalizing UPI and promoting digital payments,
• Developed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) in 2016, UPI is an instant payment system that integrates multiple bank accounts into a single mobile application, simplifying various banking functions, fund transfers, and merchant payments.
• The partnership between NPCI's subsidiary, NPCI International Payments (NIPL), and France's Lyra Collect has led to an agreement to introduce UPI in France and Europe.

Read more: Unified Payments Interface