Sambhav-2023

Answer 1

Approach

• Introduce the unstable and volatile nature of policy of British India.
• Discus relations of British India with Neighboring Countries during nineteenth century including Britishers war with neighbours like Afghan, Myanmar, etc.
• Conclude suitably.

Introduce

The desire of the British imperialists to consolidate their administrative and political power in the region led them into conflict with countries neighbouring India.

Body

During the nineteenth century, British India had complex relations with its neighboring countries. To the northwest, British India shared a border with Afghanistan, which had a long history of resistance to foreign rule. Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet, Myanmar were the countries with whom British India had very Stange relations. Some of the relations are mentioned below:

To the northeast, British India shared a border with China

• Anglo-Bhutanese Relations: The occupation of Assam in 1826 brought the British into close contacts with the mountain state of Bhutan. In 1865, the Bhutanese were forced to surrender the passes to Assam, in return for an annual subsidy. It was the surrendered district which became a productive area with tea gardens.
• Anglo-Nepalese Relations: The Gorkhas wrested control of Nepal and expanded their dominion beyond the mountains. They found it easier to expand in the southern direction, as the north was well defended by the Chinese. In 1801 Gorkhas’ boundary and the Company’s boundary comes together. The conflict started in the period of Lord Hastings (1813–23) and ended with the Treaty of Sagauli (1816). As per the treaty,
  • Nepal accepted a British resident.
  • Nepal ceded the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon, and abandoned claims to Terai.
  • Nepal also withdrew from Sikkim.
• This agreement brought many advantages to the British:
  • The British empire now reached the Himalayas.
  • It got better facilities for trade with Central Asia.
  • It acquired sites for hill stations, such as Shimla, Mussoorie, and Nainital.
  • The Gorkhas joined the British Indian Army in large numbers.
• Anglo-Burmese Relations: Burma wanted to expand westward. The expansionist urges of the British, fueled by the lure of the forest resources of Burma, market for British manufactures in Burma and the need to check French ambitions in Burma and the rest of South-East Asia, resulted in three Anglo-Burmese Wars, and in the end, the annexation of Burma into British India in 1885.
  • First Burma War (1824–26): Due to Burmese expansion westwards and threat to Assam and the Brahmaputra Valley. The British forces occupied Rangoon. Peace was established in 1826 with the Treaty of Yandabo. Treaty had provisions: like,
    • Pay one crore rupees as war compensation; cede its coastal provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim; negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain; and accept a British resident at Ava while posting a Burmese envoy at Calcutta.
  • Second Burma War (1852): It was the result of the British commercial (timber resources of upper Burma and Burmese market) the imperialist policy of Lord Dalhousie.
  • Third Burma War (1885): The British merchants at Rangoon had been complaining about the stepmotherly treatment by Thibaw, and negotiation of commercial treaties with the rival powers of France, Germany, and Italy.
    • Dufferin ordered the invasion and final annexation of upper Burma in 1885. Finally, it became independence on January 4, 1948.
• Anglo-Tibetan Relations: Tibet was ruled by a theocracy of Buddhist monks (lamas) under nominal suzerainty of China. The British efforts to establish friendly and commercial relations with Tibet. The Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was ineffective and Russian influence at Lhasa was increasing.
  • Curzon sent a small contingent under Colonel Younghusband on a special mission to Tibet. Treaty of Lhasa (1904) Younghusband dictated terms to the Tibetan officials which provided that: Tibet would pay an indemnity of 75 lakh rupees; the Indian Government would occupy the Chumbi Valley; Tibet would not grant any concession for railways, roads, telegraph, etc., to any foreign state.
• Anglo-Afghan Relations: Increased Russian influence in Persia, English got alarmed about possible Russian plans regarding India. A need of scientific frontier and friendly regime in Afghan led to Anglo-Afghan War.
  • Forward Policy of Auckland: To protect the boundary of British India from a probable Russian attack either through treaties with the neighbouring countries or by annexing them completely. It leds to:
    • First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42): British was harmed financially, strategically and economically by this war.
  • John Lawrence and the Policy of Masterly Inactivity: It was a reaction to the disasters of the First Afghan War and of Afghan passion for independence. Policy rested on the fulfilment of two conditions:
    • The peace at the frontier was not disturbed.
    • No candidate in civil war sought foreign help.
  • Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve: It was aimed at having scientific frontiers and safeguarding ‘spheres of influence’ and the relations with Afghanistan could no longer be left ambiguous. It led to:
    • Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870–80): Lytton invaded Afghanistan. Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879) The treaty provided that:
      • The Amir conducted his foreign policy with the advice of the Government of India.
      • A permanent British resident be stationed at Kabul; a
      • Ripon abandoned this plan and decided on a policy of keeping Afghanistan as a buffer state.

Conclusion

• Successive Indian rulers tried to reach out to this region lying between the Indus and Afghanistan in their search for a scientific frontier. The Durand Line between Afghan and British territories.
• Curzon followed a policy of withdrawal and concentration. British troops withdrew from advanced posts, which were replaced by tribal levies, trained and commanded by British officers. He created the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), and Curzon’s policies resulted in a peaceful north-west frontier.

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Answer 2

Approach

• Introduce briefly the policies of imperial expansion and consolidation of British paramountcy.
• Examine the various factors that enabled the British to expand their power in India, including their military and technological superiority, their strategic alliances with local rulers, and their economic policies.
• Conclude suitably.

Introduction

• The process of imperial expansion and consolidation of British paramountcy was carried on by the Company during the 1757–1857 period through a two-fold method: firstly, the policy of annexation by conquest or war, and secondly the policy of annexation by diplomacy and administrative mechanisms.
• Company defeated and subjugated, one by one, the major Indian powers like Bengal, Mysore, the Marathas, and the Sikhs, mainly by waging wars against them and through considerable deceit. But in the case of many other powers, the British applied diplomatic and administrative policies.

Body

There are several factors that contributed to the expansion and consolidation of British power in India:

• Military superiority: The British had a much more advanced military compared to the local rulers in India, which enabled them to defeat and conquer large parts of the country. They also had access to advanced weapons and technology, such as cannons and rifles, which gave them a significant advantage on the battlefield.
  • Modern style of disciplined Army deployed based on the region, religion and race, e.g., Dogras in plains and Punjabis in mountains.
• Strategic alliances: The British often formed strategic alliances with local rulers in India, either by offering them protection from other powers or by establishing treaties that granted them certain privileges. These alliances helped the British to gain a foothold in different parts of the country and expand their influence.
  • E.g., Policy of Warren Hastings’ ring-fence’ policy, Wellesley’s system of ‘subsidiary alliance’, and Dalhousie’s ‘doctrine of lapse’.
• Economic policies: The British implemented a number of economic policies that helped to consolidate their power in India. For example, they established a system of land revenue collection (Permanent, Royatwari and Mahalwari) that allowed them to extract large amounts of wealth from the agrarian economy.
  • The one-way free trade agreement was also in favour of British India.
  • They also encouraged the growth of cash crops, such as opium and cotton, which helped to enrich the British but had a negative impact on the local economy.
  • Britishers excessively used debt market of Europe to finance war effort of East India Company in India.
• Political instability: The political situation in India also played a role in the expansion of British power. At the time that the British were establishing themselves in India, the country was politically unstable and there were many small states competing for power. This made it easier for the British to negotiate trade agreements and establish themselves in the country.
  • Like: Independent rulers followed of decline of Mughals, decline, weak and incapable rulers of southern and east India i.e., Siraj-ud-daula of Bengal, Nizam of Hyderabad and Marathas of Deccan.
• Technological superiority: The British had access to advanced technologies that gave them an advantage over the local rulers in India. For example, they had steam-powered ships, which made it easier for them to travel and communicate. Invention of Railway hasten their invasion and consolidation in India.
• War as a strategic Policy: East India Company (EIC) used war not only to expand their empire but to use a steps/policy that open more avenues for them to enjoy more strategic and competitive edge over other rulers.
  • E.g., the Battle of Plassey and Buxar used by EIC to control more richest region of India and the treaties followed by wars with Nizam and Maratha helped them to place their army all over India.

Conclusion

Overall, the expansion and consolidation of British power in India was the result of a complex interplay of military, economic, and political factors. The combination of these factors enabled the British to establish themselves as a dominant power in India and to exert a significant influence on the country's society and economy.