Geography

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With the principal goal to understanding the origin and evolution of Jupiter, the Juno spacecraft (NASA) was launched in 2011.  Juno will study Jupiter much more thoroughly, given the array of nine scientific instruments that it carries on board.

The huge gas planet was likely the first planet formed and had a major impact on the formation of other planets. Like our sun, Jupiter is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium but is also imbued with other heavy elements fundamental to the creation of terrestrial planets.

By studying the atmosphere on Jupiter we can get an unprecedented insight into its origins and most importantly on the origins of other planets in our solar system including Earth. Once Jupiter’s current construction is known, it will then be possible to work out how, when and potentially where in the Solar System the first planet formed. The spacecraft will hunt for oxygen (in the form of water) in Jupiter’s atmosphere, which may also help explain how Earth got its water.

To summarize, we can expect to learn a wealth of information about Jupiter’s inner workings in the months and years to come. In discovering Jupiter, we’ll be discovering a part of ourselves.

Cryosphere is the frozen water part of the Earth system - snow cover, permafrost, sea ice. It impacts global climate in a variety of ways:

• Snow and ice have a high albedo, reflecting back a significant amount of solar radiation back into space. In this way, cryosphere acts as an important cooling factor in the global climate system.
  
• Snow and ice act as an insulating layer over land and ocean surfaces, holding in heat and moisture that would otherwise escape into the atmosphere. This insulation, then, also acts to cool the global climate.
  
• Since cold polar seawater is dense due its high salinity and sinks to the bottom of the ocean, spreading out across the globe and acting as a pump which drives oceanic circulation that transfers energy between the equator and the poles – acting as a conveyor belt.
  

The cryosphere is highly vulnerable to global warming. Therefore, any change in its composition is likely to have great side-effects on the global climate.

Salinity refers to the amount of salt dissolved in 1000 gms of sea water. It is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt. The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 o/oo and 37 o/oo. Oceanic salinity varies significantly due to the free movement of ocean water and its distribution has two aspects:

• Horizontal: The areas of highest salinity (about 37o/oo, in Atlantic Ocean) are found near the Tropics due to active evaporation owing to clear skies, high temperature and steady Trade Winds.
• From the tropical areas, salinity decreases both towards the equator and towards the poles. Salinity is relatively low near the equator (about 35 o/oo, in Atlantic Ocean) due to high rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness and calm air of the doldrums.
• In polar seas, salinity decreases (20-32 o/oo) due to very little evaporation and due to melting ice yielding fresh water.
• Vertical: Generally salinity decreases with increasing depth. Surface water is more saline due to loss of water from evaporation. This varies greatly with latitudes and is influenced by the cold and warm currents. In higher latitudes, salinity increases with depth and in middle latitudes it increases upto 35 meters and then decreases.
• The multidimensional effects of oceanic salinity are as follows:
• Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density, absorption of insolation, evaporation and humidity.
• Salinity & Water Cycle: Water in liquid state dissolves rocks and sediments which creates a complex solution of mineral salts in ocean basins. Conversely, in other states such as vapor and ice, water and salt are incompatible and water vapor and ice are essentially salt free. By tracking ocean surface salinity we can directly monitor variations in the water cycle: land runoff, sea ice freezing and melting, and evaporation and precipitation over the oceans.
• Salinity, Ocean Circulation & Climate: Ocean circulation in deep waters is primarily driven by changes in seawater density, which is determined by salinity and temperature. In the North Atlantic near Greenland, cooled high-salinity surface waters can become dense enough to sink to great depths.
• Salinity & Climate Density: The ocean stores more heat in the uppermost three meters than the entire atmosphere. Thus density-controlled circulation is key to transporting heat in the ocean and maintaining Earth's climate. Excess heat associated with the increase in global temperature during the last century is being absorbed and moved by the ocean.
• Ocean also influences the distribution of fish and other marine resources.
• NASA studies suggest that sea water is getting fresher in high latitudes while saltier in sub-tropical latitude. This will significantly impact not only ocean circulation but also the climate in which we live.

Oil refineries usually in developing countries are built away from the oil producing areas, the implications of which are both negative and positive, vis –a- vis environmental and economic costs:

Positive implications:

• Rrefineries tend to be situated closer to markets or distribution centres as it helps in saving transport costs of refined products because transport costs of refined products tends to be higher than transporting crude, as refined products lose weight through evaporation during transporting.
  
• Since pipeline transfer of refined products in India is still only with private companies, it is not evenly distributed, making transportation through this method difficult. When refineries are far away from the market, other modes of transport for refined products like railways, road or waterways, always increases the economical as well as the environmental costs (eg. air pollution).
  
• Since oil producing areas have a limited oil producing capacity the investments in setting up a refinery in its vicinity can go to waste once oil in the area dries up. Hence, it becomes economical to set up refineries near markets where a continuous consumer demand keeps it viable for longer durations of time.
  
• Refineries also need abundant sources of water for cooling purpose and for discharge of wastes, and hence environmental concerns make refineries viable only where there are sufficient water resources available.
  
• Promote decentralized industrial growth and balanced regional development.
  
• Seaboard location eases the export of petrochemical products.

Negative implications:

• Having crude transported to large distances add to environmental pollution and economic costs.
• Also, it does not incentivise further exploration and setting up of oil producing areas as it doesn't attract other industrial investments.

India experiences monsoons for a period of four months during which sometimes incessant rains cause floods and devastation, while for the rest of the year it remains dry for most parts, often resulting in water shortages. This excess flood water can surely be used as a valuable resource in water scarce regions for the non-monsoon months, thereby solving the twin problems of flood and water scarcity. The following methods may be used to achieve this objective:

• River linking: The government has been ambitious with this project of diverting excess water from overflowing rivers to rivers in non-perennial regions, in order to solve the problems of flood and water shortage. These river linking channels could also be useful as all-weather inland navigation waterways, thereby helping in creating a cheaper and pollution free mode of transport.
  
• Rain water harvesting: The excess water can be captured and stored in wells, tanks etc. during rains as was practiced in many parts of India during medieval period (in form of stepwells/baolis etc).
  
• Multi-purpose projects/dams: Dams can be erected in flood areas to capture excess water which can then be released slowly over the year as per irrigation requirements.
  
• Inundation canals and weirs: Flood water can also be managed by making diversions through inundation canals, small irrigation structures, and with weirs that take away excess water to the agricultural fields.
  

The methods stated above, can go a long way in solving various water woes of India if implemented expeditiously and on a large scale.

Some parts of the world experience seasonal winds like land and sea breezes but do so, on a much larger scale. There are tropical monsoon lands with on-shore wet monsoons in the summer and off-shore dry monsoons in the winter. They are best developed in Indian sub-continent, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of South China and Northern Australia.

Characteristics of Monsoon Climate

Temperature: Monthly mean temperature in Monsoon climate is above 18°C but temperature ranges from 15-45°C in summer and 15-30°C in winters. This temperature range helps in cultivating various crops such as wheat and rice, staple crop for the large population in the world.

Precipitation: Monsoon is associated with high precipitation. Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250cm but varies according to the intensity of seasonal winds. It also helps in paddy cultivation.

Distinct season: Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon climate. Distinct seasons have been observed with the movement of sun between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. It facilitates the cultivation of various types of crops.

• The Cool dry season: Out blowing dry winds, the North-East Monsoon, bring little or no rain to the Indian sub-continent. It has been observed during October to February.
• The Hot dry season: The temperature rises sharply with the sun’s northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer. Coastal regions are a little relieved by sea breezes.
• The Rainy season: Rainy season has been observed during mid June to September. With the burst of the South-west monsoon in mid June, torrential downpours sweep across the country. Almost all the rain for the year falls within this rainy season.
• This pattern of concentrated heavy rainfall in summer is a characteristic feature of the Tropical Monsoon climate.
• The Retreating Monsoon: The amount and frequency of rain decreases towards the end of the rainy season. It retreats gradually southwards after mid September until it leaves the continent altogether.

The role of monsoon is vital in the economy of major parts of the world because it is the main source of irrigation in rain-fed areas and facilitates in feeding more than 50 percent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia.