Rebuilding India’s Water Resilience | 28 Apr 2025

India faces an unprecedented water crisis with Himalayan snowfall at a 23-year low, threatening major river systems. Nearly 600 million Indians already experience high water stress, with groundwater depletion accelerating due to agricultural overexploitation and urbanization. Effective solutions are required to implement realistic water pricing, crop diversification, and stronger pollution controls, alongside community-based approaches like water harvesting and check dams. 

What are the Major Factors Contributing to the Water Crisis in India?  

• Climate Change and Decline in Snow Persistence: Accelerated melting of glaciers and declining snow retention are critically reducing river flows and destabilizing water availability. 
  • For instance, in 2024, India faced extreme weather events on 93% of the days in the year's first nine months, highlighting the impact of rising climate 
    • In turn, reduced snowfall in Himalayas directly impacts Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus basin water inflows, heightening summer scarcity. 
  • Recent data suggest that snow persistence over the Hindu Kush Himalaya region between November 2024 and March 2025 was 23.6% below normal level. 
• Groundwater Over Extraction and Aquifer Depletion: Excessive dependence on groundwater for irrigation and urban supply without recharge has exhausted critical aquifers. 
  • Unsustainable drawdown rates threaten long-term water security and agricultural resilience in northern plains. 
  • For instance, About 450 cubic kilometres of groundwater was lost in northern India during 2002-2021 and climate change will further accelerate its depletion. 
    • According to NITI Aayog’s “Composite Water Management Index” report 2019, India is suffering from the most severe water crisis in its history, with almost 600 million people experiencing high to extreme water stress. 
• Unsuitable Agricultural Practices and Crop Misalignment: Green Revolution legacies promote water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane even in semi-arid regions. 
  • Free power and cheap irrigation water encourage inefficiency, wastage, and overuse in farming and urban sectors 
  • For instance, according to the Agriculture Census 2015–16, large farmers, who own 10% of the paddy-growing area in Punjab—around 3,50,000 hectares—consume an estimated 5,337 litres of water to produce just one kilogram of rice, highlighting the excessive use of water resources. 
• Urbanisation, Heat Islands and Infrastructure Deficits: Rapid, unplanned urbanisation and heat islands are aggravating surface water evaporation and exhausting supplies. 
  • As high as 31% of urban households in cities, mostly those who live in unauthorised colonies and slums, do not have access to piped water leading to unsustainable urbanisation.  
  • Urban water management systems lag behind demand, risking urban "Day Zero" crises across major cities. For instance, Bengaluru faced near “Day Zero” in 2024. 
    • Also, research indicates that urban areas with intense heat island effects experience higher water demand for irrigation, landscaping, and domestic use, leading to increased water stress in regions already facing water scarcity.  
• Water Pollution and River Contamination: Industrial effluents, sewage discharge, and agricultural runoff have heavily degraded surface and groundwater quality. 
  • Toxic water reduces usable resources for drinking, irrigation, and ecosystem health, compounding scarcity. 
  • A NITI Aayog report on Water Quality stated that 70% of India's water is contaminated.  
    • Lead contamination due to PVC pipes is one of the major contributing factors of groundwater pollution in India. 
• Fragmented Water Governance and Policy Paralysis: Multiple overlapping authorities, poor coordination, and lack of integrated basin-level planning undermine action.’ 
  • Weak enforcement of water laws and absence of accountability accelerates depletion and mismanagement. 
  • The World Bank found that failing to implement better water management policies could result in regional GDP losses from 2-10% by 2050. 
• Slow Adoption of Water-Efficient Technologies: Low penetration of drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and smart water monitoring has limited conservation success. 
  • Traditional flooding methods dominate, leading to massive wastage in agriculture and urban distribution systems. 
  • Only a few states like Andhra Pradesh,. Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have adopted significant areas under micro-irrigation. (NITI Aayog) 
• Destruction of Natural Recharge Systems: Urban sprawl, lake encroachments, and floodplain destruction have crippled aquifer recharge capacity. 
  • Reduced groundwater replenishment accelerates long-term aquifer decline, especially in urban hotspots. 
  • India has lost nearly one-third of its natural wetlands over the last four decades. 
    • Major cities are facing the crisis on a much larger scale. According to a recent report, about 10,787 acres of lake land in Bengaluru worth Rs 1.5 lakh crore had been encroached upon.  
• Water-Related Health and Sanitation Crises: Contaminated and scarce water fuels outbreaks of vector-borne and waterborne diseases, aggravating public health burden. 
  • Water scarcity directly links to morbidity, mortality, and socio-economic vulnerabilities among marginalized groups. 
  • According to the Stockholm International Water Institute report, 210 million Indians lack access to improved sanitation and 21% of communicable diseases are linked to unsafe water.  
• Interstate and Local Water Conflicts: Competing demands over finite water resources are fuelling disputes between regions, farmers, and sectors. 
  • Tensions over water-sharing agreements highlight the emerging risk of "water wars" within India. 
  • For instance, in Maharashtra's Upper Godavari Project, farmers at the upper end of the canal illegally diverted water, triggering disputes over its distribution. 
    • Also, Keoladeo National Park faces recurring disputes with farmers over irrigation water, as it depends on supplies from nearby rivers and the Panchna Dam. 

What is the Current Framework for Water Governance in India? 

• Constitutional and Legal Framework 
  • Water is a State Subject under Entry 17 of the State List in the Seventh Schedule, giving states primary responsibility for water supply, irrigation, canals, drainage, and embankments. 
    • However, the Union Government plays a role in inter-state river regulation and disputes under Entry 56 of the Union List. 
  • Article 262 empowers Parliament to adjudicate inter-state water disputes and bars the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court over such disputes. 
    • Key laws include the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 and River Boards Act, 1956. 
• Institutional Architecture 
  • The Ministry of Jal Shakti (created in 2019) oversees national water resource management, combining the Ministry of Water Resources and Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. 
  • Central Water Commission (CWC) advises on flood control, irrigation, and multipurpose projects. 
  • Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) manages groundwater resources and regulatory approvals. 
• Regulatory and Policy Initiatives 
  • National Water Policy (2012) provides guiding principles for water management, advocating integrated water resource management, prioritising drinking water, and promoting conservation. 
  • Model Groundwater (Sustainable Management) Bill, 2017: Drafted by the Centre, empowering local bodies to regulate groundwater. 
  • Power Tariff Policy 2016: It mandates that thermal power plants within a 50km radius of sewage treatment plants must use treated sewage water, with the cost passed through in the tariff. 
  • Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) by NITI Aayog tracks and ranks states on water management performance to promote cooperative and competitive federalism. 
  • National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM) by CGWB for detailed groundwater mapping. 
• Judicial and Rights-Based Developments 
  • The Supreme Court has recognised access to safe water as part of the Fundamental Right to Life under Article 21. 
    • Courts have intervened in issues related to pollution of rivers (e.g., Yamuna, Ganga), groundwater extraction limits, and industrial compliance norms. 

What Measures can India Adopt for Effective Water Management?  

• Transition to Integrated Water Resource Management: India must adopt a basin-centric approach by managing water as an interconnected ecological system. 
  • Watershed restoration, river reforestation, and catchment area protection must be prioritized to secure natural hydrological cycles. 
    • Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) models can incentivize rural communities for conserving water catchments. 
  • Ecological flow norms must be mandated in dam operations. Water management must internalize biodiversity, soil health, and climate resilience objectives. 
• Institutionalise Participatory Water Governance: Water governance must shift from top-down bureaucratic control to empowering Panchayats and Water User Associations (WUAs). 
  • Decentralising decision-making ensures context-specific conservation practices and equitable water sharing. 
  • Capacity-building and accountability frameworks for local institutions should be strengthened. 
  • Community-led watershed development must be mainstreamed as a governance model. 
• Reorient Agricultural Policies Towards Water-Smart Farming: Crop diversification policies must incentivise low-water-use crops adapted to local agroecological conditions. 
  • Linking Minimum Support Prices (MSP) to water productivity rather than calorie output will shift incentives. 
    • Micro-irrigation systems like drip and sprinkler must become the norm, not the exception. 
  • Agroforestry, rainfed farming systems, and precision agriculture need targeted expansion. 
• Effective Water Pricing: India must rationalise water pricing to discourage wastage, while ensuring affordable access for the poor and rural communities. 
  • Introducing volumetric water pricing for industries and large farmers can create strong conservation incentives. 
    • Urban water tariffs can be designed progressively based on usage slabs. 
  • Transparent tariff-setting mechanisms aligned with groundwater and surface water stress levels are critical. 
• Urban Water-Sensitive Planning and Infrastructure Revamp: City master plans must integrate water-sensitive design principles (Blue Green Infrastructure), protecting recharge zones, wetlands, and drainage systems. 
  • Stormwater harvesting, aquifer recharge, and decentralized wastewater reuse must be embedded into city development. 
  • Smart metering, leak detection, and water recycling infrastructure need urgent scaling. 
    • Cities must be mandated to achieve a circular urban water economy. 
  • Also, there is a need for Tiered volumetric water pricing that can be introduced by charging lower prices for recycled or non-potable water (used for chores like cleaning and gardening) and higher prices for potable (drinking) water. 
    • This approach encourages use of treated wastewater for non-essential purposes, saving fresh water for critical needs. 
• Groundwater Aquifer Mapping and Regulation: Comprehensive mapping and zoning of aquifers should precede any extraction permissions. 
  • Groundwater management must shift from a "private good" mindset to regulated community resource stewardship. 
  • Legal frameworks for aquifer-based collective management models are needed. 
    • Technology-driven groundwater monitoring networks must be expanded nationwide. 
• Enforce Strict Pollution Control Across Rivers, Lakes, and Aquifers: Water bodies must be protected through stringent enforcement of effluent discharge standards and zero liquid discharge mandates. 
  • Polluter-pays principles and penalties must be rigorously applied on industries, municipalities, and agricultural runoffs. 
  • Sewage treatment plants must be upgraded to tertiary levels before river discharge. 
    • Restoration of urban lakes and wetlands (like Restoration of the Wazirabad lake in Gurgaon) must be made legally binding on local bodies. 
• Anchor Water Conservation in Education, Behaviour Change, and Cultural Revival: Water literacy campaigns must become part of school curricula and adult education programs across India. 
  •  Reviving traditional water harvesting systems and culturally embedded conservation ethics can boost local stewardship. 
  • Mass movements around "Water as a Sacred Resource" must be created through civil society partnerships. 

Conclusion: 

India's escalating water crisis, driven by climate change, groundwater depletion, and unsustainable practices, demands urgent, multifaceted solutions. To mitigate the crisis, the country must adopt integrated water resource management, decentralized governance, and water-smart agriculture. Achieving SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) will require a collective effort across sectors to enhance water efficiency, conservation, and equitable distribution.