India's Groundwater Crisis | 13 Jan 2025

India's agricultural prowess, particularly in water-intensive crops like paddy, comes at a severe cost to its finite groundwater resources. Between 2016 and 2024, while the country's population grew from 1.29 billion to 1.45 billion, groundwater usage for irrigation jumped dramatically from 38% to 52%. Major paddy-producing states like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan face a critical situation with most districts over-exploiting their groundwater, leading to issues of salinization and chemical contamination. While government initiatives like the Atal Bhujal Yojana have helped reduce unsustainable groundwater levels from 23% to 19% across districts, the looming population growth projections demand urgent and scaled-up interventions for water security.

What is the Current Scenario of Groundwater Usage in India?  

• Extraction and Availability: India extracts nearly 25% of the world’s groundwater, making it the largest user globally. 
  • Annual groundwater extraction (2023): 241.34 bcm. 
  • Overexploited units: 736 assessment units (11.23%) show extraction exceeding replenishable recharge. (Dynamic Groundwater Resource Assessment Report 2023) 
• Dependency: Groundwater is the backbone of India's water needs: 
  • 62% of irrigation needs are met through groundwater. 
  • 85% of rural water supply and 50% of urban water supply depend on groundwater. 

What is the Current Regulatory Framework for Groundwater Management in India? 

• Central-Level Regulation 
  • Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA): Established in 1997 under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986. 
    • Responsible for issuing guidelines, granting permits, and regulating groundwater extraction in notified areas. 
    • Monitors overexploited zones and mandates rainwater harvesting in industries, housing, and urban projects. 
  • Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): Conducts groundwater assessments, mapping, and artificial recharge projects. 
    • Implements the Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater (2020), aiming for 1.42 crore recharge structures. 
• State-Level Regulation 
  • State Groundwater Acts: Several states, such as Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh, have enacted specific groundwater acts to regulate extraction and conservation. 
    • These laws generally empower local authorities to monitor and manage groundwater. 
  • Model Groundwater Bill: A 2017 framework for states to adopt sustainable groundwater practices, focusing on participatory and equitable use. 

What are the Key Factors Responsible for Groundwater Shortage and Contamination?  

• Water-Intensive Agriculture Practices: India’s agricultural practices prioritize high-yield crops like paddy and sugarcane, which are water-intensive, leading to excessive groundwater withdrawal.  
  • Subsidies for electricity and free water in states like Punjab and Haryana encourage unregulated pumping.  
  • As a result, groundwater extraction reached 241.34 bcm in 2023, with 90% used for irrigation.  For example, Haryana faces an annual water deficit of 14 billion cubic meters, with total water demand reaching 35 billion cubic meters per year. 
• Population Growth and Urbanization: Rising population and rapid urbanization have amplified groundwater demand for drinking water, sanitation, and industrial use. 
  • Between 2016 and 2023, India’s population increased from 1.29 billion to 1.45 billion, and urban migration has stressed city aquifers.  
  • Groundwater contributes roughly 45% to urban water consumption. Major cities like Bengaluru now rely on tankers due to declining groundwater levels. 
• Climate Change and Erratic Rainfall: Climate change exacerbates groundwater stress by reducing recharge rates due to erratic monsoons and increasing evaporation.  
  • The southwest monsoon, which contributes 60% of India’s groundwater recharge, has become unpredictable, with 2023 witnessing a cumulative rainfall shortfall of 5.6% and over 200 districts experiencing deficient precipitation. 
  • For example, Tamil Nadu’s dependence on groundwater has surged due to reduced monsoon rainfall, causing deeper aquifer exploitation. 
• Industrial Effluent Discharge: Unregulated industrial discharges and untreated urban wastewater contaminate groundwater with heavy metals and chemicals like lead, mercury, and chromium.  
  • For instance, contaminated water in Kanpur's industrial areas, particularly from tanneries, contain heavy metals like chromium and mercury, leading to widespread health issues. 
• Fertilizer and Pesticide Runoff: Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides has led to nitrate and phosphate seepage into groundwater.  
  • Government’s recent estimates suggest that consumption of chemical fertilizers has increased by around 16% between 2015-16 & 2020-21.  
  • Consequently, about 56% of India's districts have been found to have nitrates beyond the  safe limit of 45 mg/L in their groundwater.  
• Unsustainable Mining Activities: Mining operations, especially in states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, lead to heavy metal contamination and aquifer depletion. 
  • Uranium and fluoride seepage from mines contaminates groundwater, posing severe health risks.  
  • For instance, Uranium levels in groundwater exceeding the permissible limit have been detected in Ballari, Kalaburagi, Kolar, Mandya, and Raichur in Karnataka 
    • Excessive fluoride concentrations beyond permissible limits are a significant concern in Rajasthan, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.  
• Salinity from Coastal Intrusion: Coastal regions face saline water intrusion into aquifers due to over-pumping and rising sea levels.  
  • A recent CGWB report states that groundwater contamination in Gujarat due to salinity affects 28 out of 33 districts (85%), impacting agriculture and drinking water availability. 

What are the Key Government Initiatives in India for Groundwater Management?  

• Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA: Launched in 2019 and now in its 5th phase ("Catch the Rain" 2024), the JSA focuses on rainwater harvesting and water conservation across rural and urban districts through the convergence of various schemes. 
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0: This mission supports rainwater harvesting via stormwater drains and promotes groundwater recharge through 'Aquifer Management Plans.' 
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020): This initiative targets water-stressed Gram Panchayats in 80 districts across 7 states, focusing on groundwater management. 
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY): The PMKSY aims to expand irrigation coverage and improve water use efficiency through components like Har Khet Ko Pani, Repair & Renovation of water bodies, and Surface Minor Irrigation schemes. 
• Bureau of Water Use Efficiency (BWUE): Set up under the National Water Mission in 2022, the BWUE promotes water use efficiency across sectors such as irrigation, drinking water supply, power generation, and industries. 
• Mission Amrit Sarovar (2022): This mission aims to create or rejuvenate 75 Amrit Sarovars in every district to enhance water harvesting and conservation. 
• National Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM): Completed by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) for over 25 lakh sq. km, this initiative supports groundwater recharge and conservation planning. 
• National Water Policy (2012): Formulated by the Department of Water Resources, this policy advocates for rainwater harvesting, water conservation, and augmenting water availability through direct use of rainfall. 
• Watershed Development Component of PMKSY (WDC-PMKSY): This component focuses on rainfed and degraded lands, integrating activities like soil conservation, rainwater harvesting, and livelihoods development. 

What Measures can be Adopted for Effective Groundwater Management in India?  

• Promoting Water-Efficient Agriculture: Adopting water-saving practices like drip irrigation, micro-irrigation, and zero tillage can significantly reduce groundwater extraction for agriculture.  
  • Linking the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) with the Atal Bhujal Yojana can ensure that efficient irrigation methods are adopted in critical groundwater-stressed regions.  
• Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) with Solar Desalination: In regions with saline or contaminated aquifers, combine Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) with solar-powered desalination plants to enhance groundwater quality and quantity.  
  • Solar desalination removes excess salts and contaminants before recharging aquifers.  
  • For example, MAR coupled with desalination in Gujarat’s Kutch region could address both salinity intrusion and water scarcity, providing a sustainable solution for arid coastal areas. 
• Aquifer Mapping with AI and IoT: Use Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies to map aquifer health and predict recharge and extraction patterns.  
  • Deploy IoT-enabled sensors to monitor water levels and quality in real time, integrated into a central AI-powered decision-making platform.  
  • For instance, Maharashtra can adopt this to monitor stressed aquifers in Vidarbha and deploy corrective actions dynamically. 
• Biochar for Aquifer Recharge: Introduce biochar-based filtration systems for aquifer recharge projects to enhance water quality and remove contaminants like heavy metals and nitrates.  
  • Biochar, derived from agricultural residues, acts as a natural filter and reduces pollution during recharge.  
  • This method can be tested in Punjab’s paddy fields to mitigate nitrate contamination from fertilizer runoff. 
• Rainwater Harvesting and Aquifer Recharge: Scaling up rainwater harvesting structures in urban and rural areas can help recharge aquifers.  
  • Linking the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) with groundwater recharge projects can mobilize community efforts.  
  • For example, Tamil Nadu’s ancient extensive rainwater harvesting system can be expanded throughout the country.  
• Crop Diversification: Encouraging farmers to transition from water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane to less water-intensive crops such as millets, pulses, and oilseeds can reduce groundwater stress.  
  • Linking the National Food Security Mission (NFSM) with state crop insurance schemes and higher MSP on pulses and millets can incentivize farmers to adopt crop diversification.  
• Revising Electricity Subsidies:  Reforming free or subsidized electricity policies that encourage unregulated pumping of groundwater is essential.  
  • Introducing metered electricity connections and linking them with subsidies for efficient water usage can incentivize conservation.  
  • For instance, Gujarat’s Jyotigram Yojana, which introduced separate electricity feeders between agricultural and consumer usage, which can be expanded throughout the country.  
• Strengthening Groundwater Monitoring: Improving monitoring networks with real-time groundwater-level sensors can provide actionable data for policymakers. 
  • Integrating India’s Water Resources Information System (WRIS) with local groundwater monitoring can ensure better decision-making.  
  • For example, Telangana’s Mission Kakatiya combines local data insights to track aquifer health and aims to restore the minor irrigation tanks and lakes. 
• Urban Water Management: Promoting urban wastewater recycling for non-potable uses, such as industrial cooling and irrigation, can reduce groundwater dependency in cities.  
  • Integrating the AMRUT 2.0 (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) with wastewater recycling policies can ensure sustainable urban water use.  
  • For instance, Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) aims to recycle 1 crore MLD of sewage to reduce pressure on the Cauvery by 50%, marking a significant step in the right direction 
• Incentivizing Private Sector Participation: Encouraging corporate social responsibility (CSR) investments in groundwater recharge projects can mobilize additional resources. 
  • Linking CSR with schemes like the Atal Bhujal Yojana can attract funding for community-level interventions.  
• Climate-Resilient Strategies:  Preparing for erratic monsoons with groundwater banking and adaptive recharge systems is crucial to mitigate climate risks.  
  • Linking climate-resilient agriculture practices under the National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) with groundwater recharge projects can strengthen resilience.  
• Phytoremediation for Contaminated Aquifers: Adopt phytoremediation, a plant-based method, to clean up contaminated groundwater.  
  • Select plants like water hyacinth or vetiver that absorb heavy metals and chemicals through their roots.  
  • Deploying this method in heavily contaminated areas like Kanpur, affected by tannery effluents, can improve groundwater quality effectively. 
• Community Awareness and Participation: Educating communities about sustainable groundwater practices through campaigns and training programs can empower them to adopt conservation measures.  
  • Linking Jal Shakti Abhiyan with local self-help groups (SHGs) and NGOs can amplify outreach.  

Conclusion: 

India's groundwater crisis, exacerbated by excessive use for irrigation, population growth, and contamination, demands immediate and sustained action. While initiatives like the Atal Bhujal Yojana and the Jal Shakti Abhiyan show promise, further strengthening of groundwater management frameworks, adoption of water-efficient agricultural practices, and innovative solutions like aquifer mapping and biochar filtration are essential.