Aurangzeb & Maratha Empire

• 24 Mar 2025

For Prelims: Mughals, Marathas, Jizya tax, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. 

For Mains: About Mughals, Their Administration, Taxation System, About Maratha Empire 

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

The public outrage in Nagpur, leading to demands for the demolition of Mughal ruler Aurangzeb’s 17^th-century tomb in Khuldabad, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar has raised the discussion about Aurangzeb and Marathas. 

Aurangzeb 

• Aurangzeb (Alamgir), the son of Shahjahan, was the sixth Mughal emperor (after Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan) who ruled from 1658 to 1707. 
• He ascended the throne after eliminating all competitors, including Dara Shukoh, Shuja, and Murad, in a war of succession. 
• He was the last powerful Mughal ruler, under whom the empire reached its greatest territorial extent but also faced significant internal strife. 

What are the Major Policies of Aurangzeb? 

• Religious Policies: 
  • Islamic Orthodoxy: He followed a strict interpretation of orthodox Sunni Islam and emphasized religious observance adhered to austere practices. 
  • Reimposition of Jizya: He reinstated the Jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679, which was perceived as discriminatory, particularly against Hindus and other religious minorities. 
  • Persecution of Religious Leaders: He persecuted Guru Tegh Bahadur (the ninth Sikh Guru) for refusing to convert to Islam which fueled Sikh resistance and contributed to their armed struggle against Mughal authority. 
  • Temple Demolition: In 1669, Aurangzeb issued a farmaan ordering the demolition of major Hindu temples, including Kashi Vishwanath Temple (Varanasi) and Keshavdev Temple (Mathura). 
• Administrative Policies: 
  • Administrative Centralization: Aurangzeb curbed Subahdars' and Zamindars' autonomy, enforced fixed salaries for Mansabdars, and centralized bureaucratic appointments to strengthen imperial control. 
  • Reforms in Mansabdari: Aurangzeb curbed Mansabdars’ financial autonomy, making them reliant on the central treasury, and enhanced military efficiency through the Daag (horse branding) and Chehra (soldier identification) systems to prevent fraud. 
    • The Daag and Chehra systems were introduced by Alauddin Khilji (1296 to 1316). 
  • Fatawa-e-Alamgiri: Compiled Islamic laws to govern administrative and judicial matters, making the state more theocratic in nature. 
• Economic & Taxation Policies: 
  • He continued the Zabt system of revenue collection which imposed high, inflexible taxes despite crop failures, leading to peasant distress and food shortages. Lack of investment in irrigation and agricultural reforms worsened economic stagnation. 
    • The Dahsala (Zabti) system, introduced by Raja Todar Mal under Akbar, was a systematic revenue assessment method based on the 10-year average of crop production and prices. 
  • Heavy Military Expenditure:  Prolonged wars against Marathas and Rajputs drained finances, increased tax burden, and fueled peasant revolts, accelerating regional resistance. 
  • Trade Regulations: Trade restrictions favored Muslim merchants, while strict Islamic commercial laws discouraged entrepreneurship, reducing the empire’s economic competitiveness. 
  • Decline in Arts, Culture, and Infrastructure: Reduced patronage to artisans and halted monumental architecture, shifting focus to military fortifications, limiting economic growth. 

What are the Key Facts Related to Maratha Empire? 

• Emergence of Marathas:  
  • The Maratha Empire emerged in the 17^th century under the leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji (1630-1680), who laid its foundation by challenging the declining Adil Shahi and Mughal rule in the Deccan. 
  • It was formally established in 1674 with Shivaji's coronation as Chhatrapati and lasted until 1819, when it was defeated by the English East India Company. 
• Rise of Maratha Empire: The rise of the Marathas can be attributed to a combination of strategic, geographical, and political factors. 
  • Geographical Advantage: The rugged terrain of the Western Ghats provided a natural defense and facilitated guerrilla warfare tactics, while the numerous hilltop forts strengthened Maratha resistance and military operations. 
  • Religious and Political Unity: Shivaji’s leadership played a crucial role in unifying the Marathas politically, while the Bhakti movement fostered religious cohesion.  
    • Spiritual leaders like Sant Tukaram, Samarth Ramdas, and Eknath further promoted social and cultural unity among the people. 
  • Administrative and Military Experience: The Marathas gained valuable administrative and military experience by holding key positions in the Bijapur and Ahmadnagar Sultanates.  

Sambhaji Maharaj 

• About: Sambhaji Maharaj (1657–1689), the eldest son of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and Saibai Nimbalkar, ascended the Maratha throne in 1681.  
  • His reign was marked by unwavering resistance against the Mughal Empire, particularly Aurangzeb. 
• Early Life and Accession: He was born on 14^th May 1657, lost his mother at the age of 2 and was raised under the care of his grandmother, Jijabai. 
  • He showed military skill from a young age, leading his first Battle at Ramnagar when he was only 16. 
  • He married Yesubai and had a son, Shahu Maharaj. 
• Conflict with the Mughals: 
  • Resistance Against Aurangzeb: Sambhaji continued his father’s struggle against the Mughals and other regional adversaries. 
  • Sack of Burhanpur (1681): He launched a successful raid on the Mughal stronghold of Burhanpur, dealing a significant blow to Aurangzeb’s forces. 
  • Guerrilla Warfare: He effectively employed guerrilla tactics to counter repeated Mughal offensives, inflicting heavy losses on the enemy. 
• Capture and Execution: 
  • In 1689, Sambhaji was betrayed by Ganoji Shirke, his brother-in-law, who revealed his location to the Mughals. 
  • He, along with his close aide Kavi Kalash, was captured at Sangameshwar. 
  • Refusing to submit to Aurangzeb, he endured brutal torture before being executed on 11th March 1689, at Tulapur near Pune. 

What are the Key Facts Related to Chhatrapati Shivaji? 

• Conflict with the Mughals: Shivaji raided Mughal territories near Ahmednagar and Junnar (1657), prompting Aurangzeb to send Nasiri Khan, who defeated Shivaji’s forces.  
  • In 1659, Shivaji repelled an attack by Shaista Khan and the Bijapur army in Pune. He later sacked Surat (1664). 
  • The Treaty of Purandar (1665) with Raja Jai Singh I led to the surrender of several forts to the Mughals. Shivaji also agreed to visit Aurangzeb’s court at Agra and send his son, Sambhaji. 
• Arrest and Escape: In 1666, Shivaji was arrested at Aurangzeb’s court in Agra but escaped in disguise with Sambhaji.  
  • Peace followed until 1670, when the Mughals revoked Sambhaji’s jagir of Berar. Shivaji retaliated, swiftly reclaiming lost territories and expanding Maratha control in the Deccan. 

Successors of Shivaji 

• Sambhaji (1681-1689): He continued expansionist policies but was captured and executed by the Mughals. 
• Rajaram (1689-1700):  Fled to Ginjee Fort, led resistance against the Mughals, and later died at Satara. 
• Shivaji II & Tara Bai’s Regency (1700-1714):  Tara Bai, Rajaram’s widow, ruled as regent and led the Maratha resistance. 
• Shahu & Rise of Peshwas (1713 Onwards): Shahu, son of Sambhaji, appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1713, marking the rise of the Peshwa system in Maratha administration. 

What are the Key Facts About Shivaji's Administration? 

• Central Administration: Shivaji established a well-structured administration, drawing inspiration from the Deccan style, particularly Malik Ambar’s reforms in Ahmednagar.  
  • The King was the supreme authority, assisted by the Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight Ministers) consisting of: 
    • Peshwa (Prime Minister): Oversaw overall administration. 
    • Amatya (Finance Minister): Managed state finances. 
    • Sacheev (Secretary): Issued royal orders. 
    • Mantri (Interior Minister): Managed internal affairs. 
    • Senapati (Commander-in-Chief): Led military operations. 
    • Sumant (Foreign Minister): Handled diplomatic relations. 
    • Nyayadhyaksha (Chief Justice): Oversaw judicial matters. 
    • Panditrao (High Priest): Managed religious affairs. 
  • Chitnis (Royal Secretary) played a key role in governance. 
• Provincial Administration: The empire was divided into provinces (prants), districts (tarafs), and sub-districts (parganas).  
  • Local officials included Deshmukhs and Deshpandes (revenue collectors). 
• Revenue Administration: Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari system and introduced the Ryotwari system, altering the roles of hereditary revenue officials such as Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils, and Kulkarnis.  
  • He closely monitored Mirasdars, who held hereditary land rights. His revenue system followed Malik Ambar’s Kathi system, wherein land was measured using Rod (Kathi). 
  • Key Revenue Sources: 
    • Chauth (1/4th of revenue) levied on non-Maratha territories as protection money. 
    • Sardeshmukhi (10% levy) imposed on regions outside the kingdom. 
  • Controlled the power of Mirasdars (hereditary landlords) to prevent corruption. 
• Military Administration: Shivaji maintained a highly disciplined and efficient army , including a cavalry of 30,000-40,000 troops.  
  • Ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, while chiefs and commanders received Jagir grants (Saranjam or Mokasa). His army comprised: 
    • Infantry (Mavali foot soldiers) 
    • Cavalry (Horsemen and equipment handlers) 
      A strong naval force to protect coastal territories. 
  • Introduced guerrilla warfare tactics and fortified numerous strategic locations. 
  • Established India’s first naval force to protect maritime trade and coastal regions. 

Conclusion 

Shivaji’s leadership and the Marathas’ unwavering spirit reshaped Indian history by challenging Mughal dominance and establishing a self-governed kingdom. Their military strength, administrative efficiency, and resilience against powerful empires played a crucial role in India’s political revival. 

Drishti Main Question: Discuss the reasons for the decline of the Maratha Empire. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question 

Prelims

Q. Ashta Pradhan was a council of ministers(1995)

(a) in the Gupta administration 

(b) in the Chola administration 

(c) in the Vijayanagara administration 

(d) in the Maratha administration 

Ans. d 

Q. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (2022)

1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection. 
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 only 

(b) 2 only 

(c) Both 1 and 2 

(d) Neither 1 nor 2 

 Answer: d