Methane Emissions and Global Warming

Source: DTE 

Why in News?

Methane (CH4) emissions are surging, threatening global climate targets set by the Paris Agreement. While carbon dioxide (CO₂) has been the main focus in climate discussions, methane, a far more potent greenhouse gas (GHG), is gaining attention.  

• Addressing methane’s role in global warming offers significant potential for rapid climate progress. 

What is the Climate Impact of Methane Emissions? 

• Climate Impact: Methane is approximately 80 times more potent than CO₂ as a GHG and has contributed to around 30% of global warming since the industrial revolution.  
  • However, it remains in the atmosphere for only about 7 to 12 years. Therefore, reducing methane emissions or enhancing its sinks can significantly impact climate change in the short term, providing valuable time to tackle the more complex challenge of reducing reliance on fossil fuels and associated CO₂ emissions. 
  • Reducing methane emissions by 45% by 2030 can help meet the Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C. 
    • Abating methane emissions and enhancing atmospheric removal can rapidly mitigate warming, turning this climate villain into a crucial ally in keeping global temperatures within safe limits. 
• Air Quality Issues: Controlling methane emissions is crucial for improving air quality as methane contributes to the formation of ground-level (tropospheric) ozone, a harmful air pollutant that affects respiratory health. 
• Emission Sources: Key sectors responsible for methane emissions include energy (especially oil, gas, and coal), agriculture (primarily livestock and rice cultivation), and waste management (landfills).  
  • Global methane emissions are estimated at around 580 million tonnes annually, with approximately 40% from natural sources and 60% from human activities (anthropogenic emissions), their mitigation is seen as a relatively achievable climate action. 
    • The largest anthropogenic source is agriculture, accounting for about 25% of emissions, closely followed by the energy sector (coal, oil, natural gas, and biofuels). 

What Global Efforts are Underway to Reduce Methane? 

• Global Methane Pledge (GMP): It was launched at CoP26 2021 (Glasgow climate pact), and aims to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030.  
  • Led by the US and EU, the GMP now has 158 country participants  representing a little over 50% of global anthropogenic methane emissions. 
  • India has opted not to sign the Global Methane Pledge. 
• UN Environment Programme (UNEP): UNEP leads initiatives like the International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO) and the Oil and Gas Methane Partnership to monitor and reduce methane from energy, agriculture, and waste sectors. 
• International Energy Agency: The IEA’s Global Methane Tracker is an indispensable tool in the fight to bring down emissions from across the energy sector. 
• Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC): Supports countries in implementing methane reduction measures. 
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Reports: The IPCC emphasises the importance of reducing methane to meet global climate targets and has provided guidelines for nations to address methane emissions in their climate strategies. 

Why Did India Reject the Global Methane Pledge? 

• Impact on Agricultural Livelihoods: The primary sources of methane emissions in India are enteric fermentation (digestive process that occurs in the stomachs of ruminant animals) from livestock and paddy cultivation. These practices are vital for small and marginal farmers, who form the backbone of India's agricultural sector. 
  • The methane emissions resulting from these agricultural activities are considered "survival" emissions, as they directly impact food production and farmers' livelihoods rather than being associated with luxury consumption. 
• Food Security Concerns: India is one of the largest producers and exporters of rice. A reduction in methane emissions, particularly from rice cultivation, could significantly jeopardize food security, affecting both domestic supply and export potential. 
  • The potential negative impact on agricultural production could further threaten farmers' incomes and, by extension, rural economies. 
• Shifting From CO2: India contends that CO2, with a lifespan of 100-1000 years, is the primary contributor to climate change, while the Pledge shifts focus to methane reduction, which has a shorter lifespan, thus altering the burden of CO2 reduction. 
• Sovereign Right to Determine Climate Actions: India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement do not impose sector-specific emissions reduction targets, allowing the country to determine its climate actions based on national circumstances and priorities. 
  • The Indian government, through assessments, determined that signing the Pledge would not align with its national interests. 

How is India Reducing Methane Emissions? 

• India’s Participation in Climate Agreements: India is a Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), including its Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement , which aim to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. 
• National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, NMSA promotes climate-resilient practices, including techniques to reduce methane emissions in rice cultivation. 
• National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA): The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed multiple technologies to reduce methane emissions in rice production: 
  • System of Rice Intensification (SRI): Increases rice yield by 36-49% while using 22-35% less water than conventional methods, reducing methane emissions. 
  • Direct Seeded Rice (DSR): The DSR system reduces methane emissions as it does not involve raising nurseries, puddling and transplanting. 
  • Crop Diversification Programme: Shifts from paddy cultivation to other crops like pulses, oilseeds, maize, and cotton, which reduces methane emissions from rice fields. 
• Capacity Building Programs: Krishi Vigyan Kendras across India conduct awareness programs for farmers on climate-resilient and methane-reducing agricultural practices. 
• National Livestock Mission: This mission, under the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD), promotes: 
  • Breed Improvement and Balanced Rationing: Feeding livestock with a balanced and superior-quality diet reduces methane emissions. 
  • Green Fodder Production and Silage Making: Encourages green fodder production, chaff cutting, and total mixed ration practices to reduce emissions from livestock. 
• Gobardhan Scheme (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources): Incentivizes the utilisation of cattle waste for producing clean energy and organic manure, thus reducing methane emissions from livestock waste in rural areas. 
  • The New National Biogas and Organic Manure Programme incentivises cattle waste utilisation and clean energy production in villages.  

Drishti Mains Question: Discuss the significance of methane emissions in the context of global warming and climate change.

7th National Security Strategies Conference 2024

Source: TH 

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Home Minister inaugurated the National Security Strategies Conference (NSSC) 2024 in New Delhi. 

• The roadmap to solutions to emerging national security challenges has been discussed with the top police leadership. 
• The top police officers also discussed how to study the issues concerning tribals with a “non-Colonial approach”. 

What are the Key Highlights of the NSSC 2024? 

• About NSSC: It was conceived by the Prime Minister during the DGsP/IGsP Conference with the objective of finding solutions to major national security challenges through discussions amongst a unique mix of senior police leadership.  
• Diversity of Participants: The conference brings together a unique mix of senior police leadership managing national security challenges, young police officers working at the cutting-edge level, and domain experts in specialised fields. 
• DGsP/IGsP Conference Recommendations Dashboard: A new dashboard developed by the National Crime Records Bureau has been launched. 
  • It is designed to aid in the implementation of decisions taken during the annual Directors and Inspectors General of Police conference chaired by the Prime Minister. 
• Focus on Tribal Issues with a Non-Western Approach: The discussion emphasised the need for adopting a non-colonial perspective in addressing the grievances of tribal communities.  
  • The idea is to move away from the Western model of dealing with indigenous populations, which historically stigmatised and marginalised them and emphasis should be given to respect, inclusion, and empowerment rather than control and exclusion. 
• Discussion on Multiple Security Challenges: 
  • Radicalisation of youth via social media particularly focusing on “Islamic and Khalistani radicalization.” 
  • Narcotics and trafficking has become a major concern in internal security, impacting social and economic stability. 
  • Security at non-major ports and fishing harbours which pose significant risks for smuggling and other illegal activities. 
• Emerging Threats and Technological Challenges: The conference explored several emerging security threats. 
  • Fintech Fraud: It emphasised on how financial technologies are being exploited for criminal activities. 
  • Rogue Drones: Countermeasures against rogue drones, used for smuggling and surveillance, were a focal point of the session. 
  • Exploitation of App Ecosystems: Criminals are increasingly using mobile apps for illicit activities.  

How British Colonists Dealt with Tribals in India? 

• Criminal Tribes Act, 1871: During British colonial rule, the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871 classified several tribes as hereditary, habitual criminals. 
  • As per the British, they were naturally inclined to commit minor crimes.  
  • Their alleged likelihood to commit crime at any moment justified blanket surveillance against them at all times. 
• Indian Forest Act, 1865: The act banned many daily practices of tribals, such as cutting wood, grazing cattle, collecting fruits and roots, and fishing. 
  • Tribals were forced to steal wood from the forests, facing bribes from forest guards if caught. 
• Forest Act, 1878: It was more comprehensive than earlier ones.  
  • Forests were categorised as reserved forests, protected forests and village forests which restricted tribals’ access to forests. 
  • Provision was made to impose a duty on timber. 
• Indian Forest Act, 1927: This Act classified forests into three categories namely reserved forests, village forests and protected forests. 
  • In reserved forests, local people are prohibited leading to physical harassment of  tribal communities on their entry. 
• Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduction of permanent settlement in tribal areas abolished the traditional practices of collective and traditional ownership of lands (Khutkutti system).  
  • Exploitation by the outsiders (Dikus) such as police, traders, and moneylenders aggravated the tribals' sufferings. 

How has the Indian Government has Adopted a non-Colonial approach for Tribals? 

• Habitual Offenders Act, 1952: After Independence, the Indian government replaced Criminal Tribes Act, 1871 with the Habitual Offenders Act, 1952. 
  • The communities that were notified as ‘criminal’ under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871 had become “Denotified Tribes” and no longer considered “born criminals”.  
• National Forest Policy 1952: It recognised tribal symbiotic relationship with the forests and allowed for the protection, preservation and development of forests. 
• Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: It aims to prevent the commission of offences of atrocities against the members of the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and the Scheduled Tribes (STs).  
  • It mandates the constitution of special courts for hearing cases on atrocities against SCs and STs. 
• Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006: FRA 2006 aims to correct the injustices done to forest-dwelling communities by colonial-era forest laws. 
  • It gives Forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and other traditional forest dwellers (OTFD) the right to ownership to land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers. 

What Challenges are Still Faced by Tribals? 

• Colonial Legacy of Stigmatisation: Despite the repeal of the "criminal tribes" law in 1952, the stigma associated with tribals persists. 
  • The colonial mindset of excluding tribals and viewing them as unequal to the mainstream population has continued even after Independence. 
• Challenges Faced by Denotified Tribes: Denotified tribes are not scheduled tribes, so they lack legislative protection, making them even more vulnerable. 
• Rising Violence Against Tribals: Data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) indicates a steady rise in such crimes, with incidents increasing from 8,802 cases in 2021 to 10,064 in 2022 ( 14.3% increase).  
  • Madhya Pradesh (30.61%), Rajasthan (25.66%) and Odisha (7.94%) recorded the majority of cases of atrocities against STs. 
• State-Wise Variations in Problems: In Madhya Pradesh, prostitution rackets exploit tribals, while in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, counter-insurgency operations against Maoists disproportionately impact tribal populations.  
• Evictions and Displacement: Despite the FRA’s protections, some tribal communities still face eviction from forest lands due to poor enforcement or lack of recognition of their rights. E.g., Eviction of Bodo, Rabha and Mishing tribe from the Orange National Park in Assam.

How to Address Challenges Faced by Tribals? 

• Addressing Historical Stigma: Public awareness campaigns, educational reforms, and media portrayal should challenge stereotypes and promote respect for tribal communities. 
• Enhancing Law Enforcement: Strengthening law enforcement mechanisms, increasing conviction rates, and establishing fast-track courts for crimes against tribals are crucial steps to ensure justice. 
• Effective Implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA): Efforts must be made to strengthen the implementation of the FRA at the local level, ensuring that tribals are not unjustly evicted from their lands.  
  • Mechanisms such as land title verification, community involvement in forest management, and legal recourse for displaced tribals should be enhanced.  
• Cultural Preservation: Support initiatives that promote and preserve tribal culture, languages, and traditions, fostering pride and identity. E.g., Adi Mahotsav. 
• Political Representation: Ensure adequate representation of tribal communities in local governance and decision-making bodies to voice their concerns. E.g., Reservation of seats for STs in the Lok Sabha (Article 330), State Legislatures (Article 332) and Panchayats (Article 243) and proper implementation of 5th Schedule of the Constitution.

Drishti Mains Question:  Discuss the need of adopting a non-colonial approach in addressing tribal issues in India

Racial Divide in South Africa

Source: TH 

Why in News?

Despite the end of apartheid 30 years ago in South Africa, its economy remains deeply divided by race and systemic inequalities persist. 

• This has reignited political debate on the effectiveness of the post-apartheid Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) policy. 

What is the Current State of Racial Divide in South Africa? 

• Unemployment Rates: As of April-June 2024, South Africa's overall unemployment rate was 33.5%. Among Black South Africans, it was significantly higher at 37.6%, compared to 7.9% for white South Africans and 23.3% for those of mixed race.  
  • Unemployment among Black individuals has consistently exceeded the national average and risen by over 9% since 2014. 
• Management Control: In 2022, white individuals, who make up about 8% of South Africa's population, held 65.9% of top management positions, while Black individuals held only 13.8%, as per the report of South Africa’s Commission for Employment Equity. 
• Job Level Distribution: Blacks make up 82.8% of unskilled labour positions, while white individuals hold just 0.9%, with Black representation decreasing at higher job levels. 
• Ownership in Companies: According to the Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Commission, no Johannesburg Stock Exchange-listed company is 100% Black-owned. 

What was Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa? 

• Apartheid: Apartheid (or apartness) was a system of racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa that lasted from 1948 to 1994.  
  • It was implemented by white Europeans colonists' governments in South Africa. 
• Key Policies of Apartheid System: 
  • Segregation: Non-whites were forced to live in designated areas and use separate public facilities from whites. 
  • Voting rights: Non-whites were denied the right to vote. 
  • Marriage and social relations: Interracial marriages and social relations were prohibited. 
  • Associations and protests: Blacks were barred from forming associations or protesting against apartheid. 
• Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM): The Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) was the first successful transnational social movement of the 20th century.  
  • Objective: 
    • To internally dismantle the apartheid regime in South Africa and 
    • To externally push for political, economic, and cultural sanctions against the government. 
  • Phases of the AAM: 
    • First Phase (Pre-1960s): It focused on nonviolent direct action led by organisations like the African National Congress (ANC) and the South African Communist Party (SACP). 
    • Second Phase (Post-1960s): The struggle became international, gaining support from the African Union, the United Nations (UN), and countries like India.  
      • The UN adopted the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. 
    • Third Phase (Post-1980s): It was marked by massive internal resistance through strikes, boycotts, demonstrations, and acts of sabotage to make the country ungovernable. 
  • Impact of the AAM: By 1990, the South African government lifted bans on political parties and repealed key apartheid laws, including the Land Acts of 1913 and 1936, the Population Registration Act, and the Separate Amenities Act.  
    • Nelson Mandela, the leader of the African National Congress (ANC), was released from prison in 1991, and in 1994, he became the President of South Africa. 
    • End of Legalised Segregation: The apartheid laws were repealed, leading to the establishment of a democratic government in 1994. 
    • Universal Suffrage: All South Africans gained the right to vote, regardless of race. 
    • Constitutional Protections: The new constitution enshrined human rights and equality for all citizens. 
      • The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established in 1995 to address the atrocities committed during the apartheid era and facilitate national healing and reconciliation. 

What was the Role of India in Ending Apartheid in South Africa? 

• Gandhi’s Influence: The seeds of Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) in South Africa were sown by Mahatma Gandhi, who was inspired by the humiliation faced by Asians from White Europeans.  
  • He established the first anti-colonial and anti-racial discrimination movement, founding the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 and the newspaper Indian Opinion in 1903.  
  • In 1906, Gandhi led thousands of Satyagrahis in boycotting Asiatic Law Amendment Ordinance that mandated Indians to carry registration certificates with their fingerprints.  
  • When he left South Africa in 1915, he left behind the legacy of the Phoenix Settlement, an ashram-like community near Durban. 
• Indian Diaspora's Role:  
  • During World War II, the bond between the national movements of India and South Africa strengthened.  
    • Indian South Africans increasingly recognized their shared destiny with the African majority, participating in joint struggles against racism. 
• Role of Indian Government: 
  • Upon assuming office, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru emphasised India's commitment to ending colonialism and promoting racial equality globally. 
  • India was the first country to sever trade relations with the apartheid government in 1946 and later imposed a complete embargo on South Africa. 
  • It was also the first to bring the issue of South African apartheid to the United Nations (UN) in 1946, helping to internationalise the fight against racism.  
  • Additionally, the African National Congress (ANC) maintained a representative office in New Delhi from the 1960s, and India actively supported the AFRICA Fund to sustain the Anti-Apartheid Movement. 
  • Apartheid was on the agenda of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), right from the first conference in 1961.  
    • India has played a significant role in NAM since its inception. 
    • During the 2^nd NAM conference at Cairo, Egypt in 1964 the government of South Africa was warned against the discriminatory practices of apartheid. 

What is Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) Policy of South Africa? 

• About:  
  • The Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) policy is a governmental initiative in South Africa designed to enhance the economic status of Black, Coloured, and Indian South Africans.  
    • It aims to rectify historical imbalances by promoting equitable distribution of economic resources among the majority of South African citizens. 
  • The Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act was made into law in 2003. 
• Objectives: 
  • Increasing the ownership, management, and control of enterprises by Black individuals. 
  • Facilitating ownership and management opportunities for communities, workers, and cooperatives. 
  • Achieving fair representation of diverse racial groups in the workforce. 
  • Encouraging preferential procurement from Black-owned businesses. 
  • Investing in enterprises owned by Black individuals. 

 

Bombay HC Strikes Down IT Rules 2023

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, The Bombay High Court (HC) struck down the Amended Information Technology Rules, 2023 which empowered the Centre to set up a Fact Check Unit (FCU) to identify fake, false and misleading information about the government on social media. 

What was the High Court’s Observation Regarding FCU? 

• The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2023, violated Article 14 (right to equality), 19 (freedom of speech and expression) and 19(1)(g) (freedom and right to profession) of the Constitution. 
• The definition of fake or misleading news remains ambiguous, lacking clarity and precision.  
• In the absence of a legally established "right to the truth," the State is not obligated to ensure that citizens are provided solely with information deemed accurate by the Fact Check Unit (FCU).  
• Additionally, the measures fail to meet the standard of proportionality. 

What is the Fact Check Unit (FCU)?

• About: The FCU is an official body to address and counter the spread of misinformation related to the Indian government.  
  • Its primary function is to identify and verify facts, ensuring the dissemination of accurate information in public discourse. 
• Establishment of FCU: In April 2023, the MeitY established the Fact-Check Unit (FCU) by amending the Information Technology Rules, 2021. 
• Legal Issue: In March 2024, the SC issued a stay on the establishment of Fact-Check Unit (FCU) under the Press Information Bureau. 
  • The government defended the FCU, as it aimed to prevent the spread of false information and is the least restrictive measure to combat misinformation.  
• Compliance and Consequences: FCU will adjudicate content, and failure by intermediaries to comply with its directives could result in action under Section 79 of the IT Act, 2000 for violating safe harbour provisions.

What is the Information Technology Amendment Rules 2023? 

• About: 
  • These rules were established under the powers conferred by the Information Technology Act, 2000. 
  • The rule replaced the Information Technology (Intermediaries Guidelines) Rules, 2011. 
• Due Diligence by Intermediaries: 
  • Intermediaries must prominently display rules, regulations, privacy policies, and user agreements on their platforms. 
  • Intermediaries should take steps to prevent the publishing of unlawful content, including obscene, defamatory, or misleading information. 
  • Grievance Redressal Mechanism must be established by intermediaries to handle user complaints. 
• Additional Due Diligence for Significant Intermediaries: 
  • Significant Social Media Intermediaries must appoint a Chief Compliance Officer and a Grievance Officer. 
  • These intermediaries must report monthly compliance including complaints and actions taken. 
• Grievance Redressal Mechanism: 
  • Intermediaries must acknowledge complaints within 24 hours and resolve them within 15 days. 
  • Complaints regarding content that violates privacy or contains harmful material should be addressed within 72 hours. 
• Code of Ethics for Publishers: 
  • Publishers of news and online content must adhere to a Code of Ethics, ensuring content does not affect the sovereignty of India or violate any existing laws. 
• Regulation of Online Games: 
  • Online gaming intermediaries must provide detailed policies about withdrawals, winnings, and user identity verification. 
  • Real-money online games must be verified by a self-regulatory body. 
    • A self-regulatory body (SRB) is defined as an organization established to oversee and enforce compliance with ethical standards, guidelines, and best practices for digital media and intermediaries.

What are the Major Concerns Related to the Amended IT Rules, 2023? 

• Censorship and Freedom of Expression: The rules are perceived to potentially infringe upon the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression by enabling the government to dictate the removal of content deemed fake, false, or misleading. 
• Ambiguity and Lack of Clarity: The terms fake, false, and misleading remain poorly defined, leading to concerns about arbitrary interpretation and enforcement, which could stifle legitimate discourse and dissent. 
• Excessive Government Control: The establishment of the FCU under the PIB raises fears of excessive government oversight in the domain of information dissemination, undermining the role of independent media and civil society. 
• Impact on Intermediaries: Social media platforms and internet service providers may face undue pressure to comply with government directives, risking their safe harbour status if they fail to remove content as mandated, which could lead to self-censorship. 
• Erosion of Accountability: The rules may diminish accountability mechanisms for the government, as the FCU could serve as a tool for silencing criticism rather than providing transparent fact-checking. 
• Chilling Effect on Content Creators: Content creators may exercise self-censorship due to fears of repercussions from the government, thereby inhibiting creativity and open dialogue. 
• Lack of Judicial Oversight: The absence of a clear and independent judicial review process for decisions made by the FCU may lead to unchecked authority and abuse of power.

Way Forward

• Strengthening Independent Oversight: Introduce an independent regulatory body to oversee the operations of the FCU, ensuring accountability and reducing the potential for governmental overreach. 
• Judicial Review Mechanisms: Implement robust judicial review processes for decisions made by the FCU, allowing individuals and organizations to challenge content removal orders in a fair and timely manner. 
• Protection of Freedom of Expression: Reaffirm the commitment to uphold the right to free speech by ensuring that any regulations pertaining to content moderation are balanced and do not infringe upon fundamental freedoms. 
• Engagement with Stakeholders: Foster a collaborative dialogue with stakeholders, including digital rights organizations, media entities, and civil society, to develop regulations that protect both the public interest and individual rights. 
• Periodic Review and Adaptation: Establish a framework for the periodic review of the IT Rules to adapt to evolving digital landscapes and address emerging challenges in misinformation and digital rights. 
• Focus on Digital Rights Protection: Integrate digital rights protection measures into the broader legal framework, ensuring that regulations enhance user rights rather than undermine them in the context of digital communication.

Drishti Mains Question:  Critically evaluate the implications of the Amended IT Rules, 2023, on digital rights and freedom of expression in India.

Telescope in Cosmic World

Source: TH

Why in News?

An Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) is under construction atop the Cerro Armazones Mountain in the Atacama Desert in Chile.

What are Telescopes?

• About: A telescope is an instrument that astronomers use to observe faraway objects. 
  • It is a common misconception that telescopes are designed to make astronomical objects appear larger. Instead their primary function is to enhance the brightness of celestial objects, measured by their light-gathering power.
    • The aperture size determines how much light can be gathered. A small reflecting telescope (0.07m aperture) gathers 118.5 times more light than the human eye.
• Types of Telescopes: 
  • Reflecting Telescope: It uses concave mirrors to focus incoming light, creating real, inverted, and smaller images. Most modern telescopes are reflectors, with parabolic mirrors to avoid image blurring.
  • Refracting Telescope: A refracting telescope is a telescope that uses lenses and refraction to redirect light in order to magnify distant objects.
    • The maximum practicable lens size in a refracting telescope is around 1 metre. 
    • The world’s largest refracting telescope is at Yerkes Observatory in the US, with a 1.02-m lens.
• Measuring Brightness: Apparent magnitude quantifies the brightness of celestial objects in a logarithmic scale.
  • Lower values represent brighter objects (e.g., Sun at -26.78, Venus at -4.92), while higher values represent dimmer objects (e.g., Andromeda Galaxy at +3.44).
• Resolution of Telescopes: The human eye with 20/20 vision can see details as small as 60 arcseconds (1 arcsecond = 1/3600th of a degree). 
  • A toy telescope, with an optimal resolving power of about 1.47 arcseconds, can see over 40 times more detail than the human eye.
  • Resolution defines the ability of telescopes to distinguish fine details between two close objects.
• Examples of Largest and Advanced Telescopes:
  • Large Binocular Telescope (LBT): It is the largest telescope to date which has two 8.4-m-wide mirrors and an effective combined aperture of 11.9 m. 
    • It is located at the Mount Graham International Observatory in Arizona, US.
  • Extremely Large Telescope (ELT): It is under construction atop the Cerro Armazones mountains in the Atacama Desert in Chile, as part of the European Southern Observatory. 
    • It has five mirrors and a combined aperture of 39.3 m.
  • Subaru Telescope: It is an 8.2-m-wide Japanese telescope located at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii. 
  • International Liquid Mirror Telescope: It is India’s and Asia’s largest telescope located at Devasthal in Uttarakhand. It employs a 4-metre-diameter rotating mirror made up of a thin layer of liquid mercury. 

Proposed Cellular Functionality Beyond Mortality

Why in News?

Recent research suggests the existence of a "third state" that challenges conventional definitions of life and death, proposing that some cells and tissues can function after an organism's death, opening up new questions about cellular capabilities and their implications for biology and medicine.

What is the Proposed 'Third State'?

• About: The concept of a "third state" refers to a condition where cells and tissues exhibit characteristics that challenge the traditional definitions of life and death. Instead of viewing death as a complete cessation of biological functions, research indicates that certain cells can continue to operate and adapt after the organism's death.
• Examples of Cellular Functionality after Mortality:
  • Xenobots: Skin cells from deceased frog embryos were observed to spontaneously form new multicellular structures, known as xenobots.
    • These xenobots displayed behaviours beyond their original biological functions, using their cilia (tiny hair-like projections) to navigate and move, unlike in living frog embryos where cilia are used to propel mucus.
    • Xenobots can undergo kinematic self-replication, allowing them to duplicate their form and functions without traditional growth. This process differs from familiar replication methods, which involve growth within or on the organism.
  • Anthrobots: Studies have shown that individual human lung cells can spontaneously form tiny, multicellular entities called anthrobots.
    • Anthrobots made from human tracheal (part of the respiratory system) cells, these bio-robots exhibit unique behaviours, allowing them to move, self-repair, and restore nearby damaged neuron cells.
• Implications of the Third State: The notion of a third state prompts a re-evaluation of life and death, suggesting biological systems may not be bound to linear life cycles.
  • Understanding how cells function after death could lead to breakthroughs in organ preservation and transplantation, improving the viability of donor organs and patient outcomes.

Read more...

14-day Timeline under UAPA

Source: HT

Recently, the Supreme Court ruled that the 14-day timeline for granting sanction for prosecution under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967 is mandatory and not discretionary.

• Both central and state governments are required to act within this timeline in matters of national security.
• UAPA Rules 2008 use the term “shall,” indicating a clear legislative intent to complete the sanctioning process within the stipulated 14 days.
  • This includes both the independent review (7 days) and government decision (7 days).
• Non-compliance with the 14-day timeline could result in severe legal consequences, such as the quashing of criminal proceedings.
• This ruling would apply prospectively, meaning it would not affect previous cases but must be followed strictly in all future instances.
• Bombay and Jharkhand High Courts had earlier considered the 14-day timeline as merely discretionary.
• The UAPA serves as a critical tool for the Indian government to combat terrorism effectively.

Read More...

India’s Mediation Act Lies Unused

Source: LM

The delay in implementing the Mediation Act, 2023 is hindering India’s alternative dispute redressal (ADR) framework.

• A working committee chaired by P.K. Malhotra to draft the rules for the Mediation Council of India submitted its report. However, the government is yet to notify these rules.
• Significance of Mediation Act, 2023:
  • Reducing Judicial Overload: Nearly 76.98 million civil dispute cases are pending in Indian courts. Of this, commercial suits account for 0.36% and arbitration contributes 0.77% which can be dealt under the Mediation Act, 2023.
  • Family Matters: It can help curb the "third-generation curse," where less than 10% of family businesses survive beyond the third generation due to disputes.
  • Banking: Helpful in resolving loan defaults and non-performing assets (NPAs) related disputes.
  • Real Estate Sector: Quicker resolution of disputes over project delays and buyer-developer contracts.
  • Aligning with Global Standards: It will help India aligning with international mediation standards, which are vital for resolving cross-border business disputes.

Read More...

NRI Quota Expansion Undermines Education

Source: HT

Recently, the Supreme Court condemned the Punjab government's decision to expand the Non-Resident Indian (NRI) quota (15%) in medical colleges to include distant relatives of NRIs, such as uncles, aunts, and cousins.

• The Supreme Court described the expansion of NRI quota as a “fraud” that undermines merit-based admissions and called it a “money-spinning tactic” that could allow less deserving candidates to gain entry based on wealth and connections rather than merit. 
• The SC referenced the PA Inamdar vs. State of Maharashtra Case, 2005, which highlighted the necessity to prevent misuse of the NRI quota.
  • However,  similar broad definitions of NRI candidates had been adopted in other states, such as Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
• NRI Quota allows NRIs, PIOs, and OCIs to secure admission, often without the need to appear for entrance exams that residents must undertake.
  • The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) allows NRI Students up to 5% in technical institutes while it is 15% in medical institutes as per the Medical Council of India. 
• NRI refers to an Indian citizen who resides outside India 182 days in a financial year. 

Read More: Rights of Overseas Citizens of India

Robotic MULE Inducted in Indian Army

Source: TH

The Indian Army has recently inducted 100 robotic Multi-Utility Legged Equipment (MULE) for use in forward (combat) areas, especially in high altitudes.

• These robots can climb stairs, steep hills, and operate in extreme temperatures ranging from -40 to +55 degrees Celsius and carry a payload of 15kg.
  • Also, logistics drones are being tested to improve support and transport in high-altitude areas.
• The robotic mule is a durable, agile ground robot designed for all weather, equipped with electro-optics and infrared technology for object recognition. It can move through and inside rivers.
• It will help the Indian army to enhance surveillance capabilities without risking human lives and to ensure critical supplies reach frontline soldiers.
• Mules are still crucial for supply delivery in high-altitude areas, making up a significant part of the Army's animal transport. The Army expects to reduce animal transport usage by 50-60% by 2030, though it remains essential in many border regions.
• China has already integrated robotic dogs into its military operations, indicating a growing deployment of robotics in military settings and possibly indicative of a new arms race.

Read More: Robots in Warfare 

Antyodaya Diwas 2024

Source: IE 

Recently, Antyodaya Diwas was observed on 25th September, 2024 to commemorate the birth anniversary of Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya. 

• This day serves to remember and celebrate his life and contributions, highlighting his influence on Indian politics and society. 
• Contributions: He focussed on Antyodaya which means upliftment of the last person and address the needs of the most disadvantaged individuals in society, 
  • His philosophy of “Integral Humanism” focussed on individual and collective welfare, social justice, economic equality, and self-reliance. 
  • He was the co-founder of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), which later evolved into the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). 
  • He was also a key thinker for the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).  
• Recognition: Since 25th September 2014, his birth anniversary is observed as Antyodaya Diwas to recognise his efforts and contributions to the nation. 
  • In 2015, the name of National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) was changed to Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-NRLM.  
  • In 2018, the Mughalsarai Junction railway station in UP was renamed Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction. He died near Mughal Sarai in 1968.

Read More: National Rural Economic Transformation Project