Air Pollutants

Removal of Governor

Why in News?

Recently, a political party called for a proposal to remove the Tamil Nadu Governor.

• In recent years, the bitterness between states and Governors has been largely about the selection of the party to form a government, deadline for proving majority, sitting on Bills, and passing negative remarks on the state administration
• Due to this, Governor is referred to with negative terms like an agent of the Centre, Puppet and rubber stamps.

How can the Governor be Removed?

• Under Article 155 and 156 of the Constitution, a Governor is appointed by the President and holds office “during the pleasure of the President”.
  • If this pleasure is withdrawn before completion of the five-year term, the Governor has to step down.
• As the President works on the aid and advice of the Prime Minister and the council of ministers, in effect, the Governor can be appointed and removed by the central government.

What Happens in case of Disagreements between the States and Governor?

• Constitutional Provisions:
  • There are no provisions laid down in the Constitution for the manner in which the Governor and the state must engage publicly when there is a difference of opinion.
  • The management of differences has traditionally been guided by respect for each other’s boundaries.
• Rulings by the Courts:
  • Surya Narain Choudhary vs Union of India (1981): The Rajasthan High Court held that the pleasure of the President was not justiciable as the Governor had no security of tenure and can be removed at any time by the President withdrawing pleasure.
  • BP Singhal vs Union of India (2010): The Supreme Court elaborated on the pleasure doctrine. It upheld that “no limitations or restrictions are placed on the ‘at pleasure’ doctrine”, but that “does not dispense with the need for a cause for withdrawal of the pleasure”.
    • The Bench held that the court will presume that the President had “compelling and valid” reasons for the removal but if a sacked Governor comes to the court, the Centre will have to justify its decision.
• Recommendations by Various Commissions:
  • Over the years, several panels and commissions have recommended reforms in how Governors are appointed and how they function. However, they were never made into law by Parliament.
    • Sarkaria Commission (1988):
      • It recommended that Governors are not sacked before completing their five-year tenure, except in “rare and compelling” circumstances.
      • The procedure of removal must allow the Governors an opportunity to explain their conduct, and the central government must give fair consideration to such explanation.
      • It was further recommended that Governors should be informed of the grounds of their removal.
    • Venkatachaliah Commission (2002):
      • It recommended that ordinarily Governors should be allowed to complete their five-year term.
      • If they have to be removed before completion of their term, the central government should do so only after consultation with the Chief Minister.
    • The Punchhi Commission (2010):
      • It suggested the deletion of the phrase “during the pleasure of the President” from the Constitution, because a Governor should not be removed at the will of the central government.
        • Instead, he or she should be removed only by a resolution of the state legislature.

Way Forward

• Strengthening of Federalism: In order to check misuse of the office of governor, there is a need to strengthen federal setup in India.
  • In this regard, the Inter-State council and the role of Rajya Sabha as the chamber of federalism must be strengthened.
• Reform the Method of Appointment of Governor: The appointment can be made from a panel prepared by the state legislature and actual appointing authority should be the Inter-state Council, not the central government.
• Code of Conduct for Governor: This 'Code of Conduct' should lay down certain 'norms and principles' which should guide the exercise of the governor's 'discretion' and his powers which he is entitled to use and exercise on his judgement.

Source: IE

World Heritage Glaciers under Threat: UNESCO

Why in News?

Recently, a study conducted by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) has found that a third of the glaciers on the UNESCO World Heritage list is under threat, regardless of efforts to limit temperature increases.

• A glacier is a large, perennial accumulation of crystalline ice, snow, rock, sediment, and water that originates on land and moves down slope under the influence of its own weight and gravity. They are sensitive indicators of changing climate.

What are the Findings?

• Threat to Glaciers:
  • 50 UNESCO World Heritage sites are home to glaciers, representing almost 10% of the Earth's total glacierized area.
    • They include the highest (next to Mt Everest), the longest (in Alaska), and the last remaining glaciers in Africa.
  • These glaciers have been retreating at an accelerated rate since 2000 due to CO₂ emissions, which are warming temperatures.
  • They are currently losing 58 billion tons of ice every year – equivalent to the combined annual water use of France and Spain – and are responsible for nearly 5% of observed global sea-level rise.
  • The glaciers under threat are in Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, North America and Oceania.
    • Africa: All World Heritage sites in Africa will very likely be gone by 2050, including Kilimanjaro National Park and Mount Kenya.
    • Asia: Glaciers in Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas (China) – highest mass loss relative to 2000 (57.2%) and also the fastest melting glacier on the List.
    • Europe: Glaciers in Pyrenees Mont Perdu (France, Spain) – very likely to disappear by 2050.
• Significance of Glaciers:
  • Half of humanity depends directly or indirectly on glaciers as their water source for domestic use, agriculture, and power.
  • Glaciers are also pillars of biodiversity, feeding many ecosystems.
  • When glaciers melt rapidly, millions of people face water scarcity and the increased risk of natural disasters such as flooding, and millions more may be displaced by the resulting rise in sea levels.
• Suggestions:
  • It is still possible to save the other two-thirds, if the rise in global temperatures did not exceed 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to the pre-industrial era.
  • In addition to drastically reduced carbon emissions there is a need for the creation of a new international fund for glacier monitoring and preservation.
    • Such a fund would support comprehensive research, promote exchange networks between all stakeholders and implement early warning and disaster risk reduction measures.
  • There is an urgent need to cut greenhouse gas emissions and invest in nature-based solutions, which can help mitigate climate change and allow people to better adapt to its impacts.

Source: TH

Collegium System

Why in News?

Recently, the Union minister of Law and Justice criticized the Supreme Court Collegium system, saying that judges only recommend the appointment or elevation of those they know and not always the fittest person for the job.

• Articles 124(2) and 217 of the Indian Constitution deal with the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts .

What is a Collegium System and How Did It Evolve?

• About:
  • It is the system of appointment and transfer of judges that has evolved through judgments of the SC, and not by an Act of Parliament or by a provision of the Constitution.
• Evolution of the System:
  • First Judges Case (1981):
    • It declared that the “primacy” of the CJI’s (Chief Justice of India) recommendation on judicial appointments and transfers can be refused for “cogent reasons.”
    • The ruling gave the Executive primacy over the Judiciary in judicial appointments for the next 12 years.
  • Second Judges Case (1993):
    • SC introduced the Collegium system, holding that “consultation” really meant “concurrence”.
    • It added that it was not the CJI’s individual opinion, but an institutional opinion formed in consultation with the two senior-most judges in the SC.
  • Third Judges Case (1998):
    • SC on the President's reference (Article 143) expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues.

Who Heads the Collegium System?

• The SC collegium is headed by the CJI (Chief Justice of India) and comprises four other senior most judges of the court.
• A High Court collegium is led by the incumbent Chief Justice and two other senior most judges of that court.
• Judges of the higher judiciary are appointed only through the collegium system and the government has a role only after names have been decided by the collegium.

What are the Procedures for Judicial Appointments?

• For CJI:
  • The President of India appoints the CJI and the other SC judges.
  • As far as the CJI is concerned, the outgoing CJI recommends his successor.
  • In practice, it has been strictly by seniority ever since the supersession controversy of the 1970s.
• For SC Judges:
  • For other judges of the SC, the proposal is initiated by the CJI.
  • The CJI consults the rest of the Collegium members, as well as the senior-most judge of the court hailing from the High Court to which the recommended person belongs.
  • The consultees must record their opinions in writing and it should form part of the file.
  • The Collegium sends the recommendation to the Law Minister, who forwards it to the Prime Minister to advise the President.
• For Chief Justice of High Courts:
  • The Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed as per the policy of having Chief Justices from outside the respective States.
  • The Collegium takes the call on the elevation.
  • High Court judges are recommended by a Collegium comprising the CJI and two senior-most judges.
  • The proposal, however, is initiated by the outgoing Chief Justice of the High Court concerned in consultation with two senior-most colleagues.
  • The recommendation is sent to the Chief Minister, who advises the Governor to send the proposal to the Union Law Minister.

What are the Issues Related to the Collegium System?

• Exclusion of Executive:
  • The complete exclusion of the executive from the judicial appointment process created a system where a few judges appoint the rest in complete secrecy.
  • Also, they are not accountable to any administrative body that may lead to the wrong choice of the candidate while overlooking the right candidate.
• Chances of Favouritism and Nepotism:
  • The collegium system does not provide any specific criteria for testing the candidate for the post of CJI because of which it leads to wide scope for nepotism and favouritism.
  • It gives rise to non-transparency of the judicial system, which is very harmful for the regulation of law and order in the country.
• Against the Principle of Checks and Balances:
  • The principle of check and balance is violated in this system. In India, three organs work partially independently but they keep check and balance and control on the excessive powers of any organ.
  • However, the collegium system gives Judiciary immense power, which leaves little room for checks and poses the risk of misuse.
• Close-Door Mechanism:
  • Critics have pointed out that this system does not involve any official secretariat. It is seen as a closed-door affair with no public knowledge of how and when a collegium meets, and how it takes its decisions.
  • Also, there are no official minutes of collegium proceedings.
• Unequal Representation:
  • The other area of concern is the composition of the higher judiciary, women are fairly underrepresented in the higher judiciary.

What were Attempts to reform the Appointment System?

• The attempt made to replace it by a ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission’ (through Ninety-ninth Amendment Act, 2014) was struck down by the court in 2015 on the ground that it posed a threat to the independence of the judiciary.

Way Forward

• Filling up of vacancies is a continuous and collaborative process involving the executive and the judiciary, and there cannot be a time frame for it. However, it is time to think of a permanent, independent body to institutionalise the process with adequate safeguards to preserve the judiciary’s independence guaranteeing judicial primacy but not judicial exclusivity.
• It should ensure independence, reflect diversity, demonstrate professional competence and integrity.

Source: IE

The Waste-to-Energy Programme

Why in News?

Recently, the Central Government has issued guidelines for rolling out its waste-to-energy programme, paving the way for companies to produce biogas and bioCNG, and electricity from urban, industrial and agricultural waste and residues.

What is the Waste-to-Energy Program?

• About:
  • The program is part of an umbrella scheme, the National Bioenergy Programme.
  • The government will offer financial assistance to project developers, while implementing agencies, including inspection firms, will be paid service charges for commissioning the waste-to-energy plants.
• Implementing Agency:
  • Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) will be the implementing agency for the program.
    • IREDA will be paid a service charge of 1% of Central Financial Assistance (CFA) to process applications, besides 1% for the CFA (minimum ₹50,000) for implementing, and monitoring the performance once the plants are commissioned.
• Financial Assistance:
  • The Centre will provide financial assistance of Rs 75 lakh per MW for new biogas plants and Rs 50 lakh per MW for existing units.
  • If the waste-to-energy plants are set up in special category states, such as the North East, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Lakshadweep, Uttarakhand, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the eligible CFA will be 20% higher than the standard CFA pattern.

What is National Bioenergy Programme?

• About:
  • The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has notified the National Bioenergy Programme.
• Sub-Schemes:
  • Waste to Energy Programme.
  • Biomass Programme:
    • Scheme to Support Manufacturing of Briquettes & Pellets and Promotion of Biomass (non-bagasse) based cogeneration in Industries to support setting up of pellets and briquettes for use in power generation and non-bagasse-based power generation projects.
  • Biogas Programme:
    • To support setting up of family and medium size Biogas in rural areas.

What is Biogas & BioCNG?

• Biogas:
  • It mainly comprises hydro-carbon which is combustible and can produce heat and energy when burnt.
  • Biogas is produced through a biochemical process in which certain types of bacteria convert the biological wastes into useful bio-gas.
  • Since the useful gas originates from a biological process, it has been termed as bio-gas.
    • Methane gas is the main constituent of biogas. 
• BioCNG:
  • Bio-CNG is a renewable fuel obtained by purifying biogas – in contrast to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), a non-renewable source of energy. Biogas is produced when microbes break down organic matter like food, crop residue, waste water, etc.
  • It is similar to natural gas in terms of its composition and properties, and is a cleaner alternative to fuels such as petrol and diesel.

What are the Benefits of Bio Energy?

• Pollution Free Cities:
  • The biogas solution can help make our cities clean and pollution-free.
  • Leaching of toxic substances from landfills contaminates the groundwater.
  • Decomposing organic matter releases huge amounts of methane into the environment, causing air pollution and global warming as methane is a very potent GHG.
• Handling Organic Waste:
  • Installing large-scale municipal biogas systems can help cities handle organic waste efficiently to overcome the environmental and socio-economic challenges posed by overburdened landfills.
  • Municipal waste can be fed into these plants to create clean and green fuel, along with biofertilizers, while keeping the cities clean and hygienic.
• Helpful for Women:
  • Switching to biogas could be good for women because they won't be exposed to harmful smoke and pollution.
  • The female members of a household are affected by indoor pollution as they spend more time inside the house.
• Will Transform Energy Dependence:
  • Biogas can play a critical role in transforming the energy dependence of rural and agricultural communities, which majorly depends on burning wood, dung, charcoal, coal and other fossil fuels for their energy needs.
  • The high dependence on non-renewable sources is the leading cause of the long-standing energy problems in the country.

What are Government’s Initiatives for Promoting Biogas & Waste Management?

• Biogas:
  • SATAT Scheme
  • The Indian government and Niti Aayog have outlined roadmaps to hasten our transition towards green fuels and promote LNG, hydrogen and methanol.
• Waste Management:
  • National Dashboard on Elimination of Single Use Plastic and Plastic Waste Management
  • Project REPLAN
  • Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016

Source: Mint

IIPDF Scheme

Why in News?

Recently, the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA), Ministry of Finance notified India Infrastructure Project Development Fund Scheme (IIPDF Scheme), a scheme for financial support for project development expenses of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Projects.

What is IIPDF Scheme?

• About:
  • The IIPDF Scheme was set up in 2007.
  • It is a Central Sector Scheme with total outlay of Rs 150 crore for a period of three years from 2022-23 to 2024-25.
  • It is available to the Sponsoring Authorities for PPP projects for meeting the project development costs.
    • It would be necessary for the Sponsoring Authority to create and empower a PPP Cell to undertake PPP project development activities and also address larger policy and regulatory issues.
• Objective:
  • It is aimed to provide financial support for quality project development activities.
• Significance:
  • The Sponsoring Authority will, be able to source funding to cover a portion of the PPP transaction costs, thereby reducing the impact of costs related to procurement on their budgets.
• Financial Outlay:
  • The IIPDF will contribute upto 75% of the project development expenses to the Sponsoring Authority as an interest free loan. The balance 25% will be co-funded by the Sponsoring Authority.
  • On successful completion of the bidding process, the project development expenditure would be recovered from the successful bidder.
    • However, in the case of failure of the bid, the loan would be converted into grant.
  • In case the Sponsoring Authority does not conclude the bidding process for some reason, the entire amount contributed would be refunded to the IIPDF.

Source: PIB

Ganga Utsav 2022

Why in News?

Recently, the Ministry of Jal Shakti by the collaboration of The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has organized Ganga Utsav- The River Festivals 2022.

What is Ganga Utsav 2022?

• About:
  • The NMCG celebrates the festival every year to strengthen the Public – River Connection.
    • NMCG is the implementation wing of National Ganga Council, set up in 2016, which replaced the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NRGBA).
    • The NMCG has been registered in the Guinness Book of World Records on the first day of Ganga Utsav 2021 for the highest number of photos of handwritten notes that were uploaded on Facebook in an hour.
  • It highlights the significance of Jan Bhagidari (People's Participation) in the revival of Ganga, with a focus on encouraging stakeholder engagement and public participation towards the rejuvenation of river Ganga.
• Ganga Utsav 2022:
  • Dedicating the grand event to the 75 years of Indian Independence (Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav), the aim is to hold similar events at more than 75 locations in states to celebrate the rivers of India.
  • The festival will include a blend of art, culture, music, knowledge, poetry, dialogue, and stories.
  • Several awareness activities will take place in districts to establish a connection with the locals, and promote Namami Gange as a mass movement.

What are the Government Initiatives on River Ganga?

• Ganga Action Plan: It was the first river action plan to improve the water quality by the interception, diversion and treatment of domestic sewage.
  • The National River Conservation Plan is an extension to this plan, which aims at cleaning the Ganga River under the Ganga Action Plan phase-2.
• National River Ganga Basin Authority: It was formed in the year 2009 under Section-3 of the Environment Protection Act 1986.
• Clean Ganga Fund: In 2014, it was formed for cleaning up of the Ganga, setting up of waste treatment plants and conservation of biotic diversity of the river.
• Bhuvan-Ganga Web App: It ensures the involvement of the public in the monitoring of pollution entering into the river Ganga.
• Ban on Waste Disposal: In 2017, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned the disposal of any waste in the Ganga.

Source: PIB

New Products in Make-II Project

Why in News?

Recently, the Indian Army has approved five Project Sanction Orders (PSOs) for the development of niche technology by the Indian industry under the Make-II route of defence procurement.

What is the Make-II Project?

• About:
  • Make II projects are essentially industry funded projects involving design, development and innovative solutions by Indian vendors for development of prototypes.
  • 22 out of 43 projects are now in prototype development stage, which is 66% of projects by cost, ₹18,000 crore out of ₹27,000 crore.
• New Additions under the Project:
  • High Frequency Man Packed Software Defined Radios (HFSDR):
    • These radio sets will replace the existing High Frequency radio sets in the inventory, which have limited data handling capability and obsolete technology.
    • Light weight HFSDR will provide long distance radio communication through enhanced data capability and band width coupled with enhanced security
  • Drone Kill Systems:
    • Drone kill system is a hard kill anti-drone system against low Radio Cross Section drones.
    • It is being developed to function in all types of terrains, both during day and night.
  • Infantry Training Weapon Simulator (IWTS):
    • It is the first triservice Make-II project with the Army as the lead service.
  • Medium Range Precision Kill Systems (MRPKS):
    • The MRPKS, once launched can ‘Loiter’ in the air for upto two hours and can acquire, designate and engage real time high value targets upto 40 km.
  • 155 mm Terminally Guided Munitions (TGM)

What is the ‘Make’ Category of Capital Acquisition?

• The ‘Make’ category of capital acquisition is the cornerstone of the Make in India initiative that seeks to build indigenous capabilities through the involvement of both public and private sector.
• ‘Make-I’ refers to government-funded projects while ‘Make-II’ covers industry-funded programmes.
  • Make-I is involved in development of big-ticket platforms such as light tank and communication equipment with Indian security protocols.
  • Make-II category involves prototype development of military hardware or its upgrade for import substitution for which no government funding is provided.
• Another sub-category under ‘Make’ is ‘Make-III’ that covers military hardware that may not be designed and developed indigenously, but can be manufactured in the country for import substitution, and Indian firms may manufacture these in collaboration with foreign partners.

What are the other Initiatives to Boost Domestic Production of Defence Equipment?

• Defence Industrial Corridors
• Corporatization of the Ordnance Factory Boards
• Defence India Startup Challenge
• Draft Defence Production and Export Promotion Policy 2020
• Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX)
• Mission Raksha Gyan Shakti

Source: TH

State of Food and Agriculture Report, 2022

Why in News?

Recently, the 2022 edition of the State of Food and Agriculture report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was released.

• The flagship report is produced each year.
• The report looked at how automation in our agrifood systems can contribute to achieving Sustainable Development Goals and offers recommendations to policy makers on how to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks.

What are the Highlights of the Report?

• The report looked at 27 case studies from all over the world, representing different technologies.
  • Only 10 of the 27 service providers are profitable and financially sustainable.
• There is an unequal progress toward mechanization among regions, according to available statistics on the number of tractors per 1,000 hectares of arable land.
• High-income countries in North America, Europe and Oceania were highly mechanised by the 1960s. But regions dominated by low-and middle-income countries were less mechanised.
• Crucially, there are wide disparities in the spread of automation between and within countries, with adoption being particularly limited in sub-Saharan Africa.
  • For instance, Japan had more than 400 tractors per 1,000 hectares of arable land, compared with just 0.4 in Ghana in 2005.
  • Agriculture reliant on human and animal power continues to dominate in sub-Saharan Africa, limiting productivity.

What are the Recommendations?

• An agricultural automation policy should ensure that agrifood systems are sustainable and resilient.
• Policymakers should avoid subsidising automation in such labour-abundant contexts.
  • Agricultural automation can lead to unemployment in places where rural labour is abundant and wages are low.
• Policymakers should focus on creating an enabling environment for adopting automation.
• Social protection should be provided to the least skilled workers, who are more likely to lose their jobs during the transition.

Source: DTE

Newly Discovered Species of Honeybee

Why in News?

Recently, a new species of endemic honeybee named Apis karinjodian has been discovered in the Western Ghats after a gap of more than 200 years.

• The last honeybee described from India was Apis indica in 1798 by Fabricius.
• The new find has increased the species of honeybees in the world to 11.

What are the Key Specifications about the Species?

• About:
  • Common Name: Indian black honeybee.
  • Apis karinjodian has evolved from Apis cerana morphotypes that got acclimatised to the hot and humid environment of the Western Ghats.
    • Indian black honeybees are able to produce a thicker honey which allows for increased honey production.
  • Till date, only a single species, Apis cerana was noted across the plains of central and southern India and Sri Lanka as a ‘fairly uniform population’ in the Indian subcontinent.
  • The research has given a new direction to apiculture in the country by showing the presence of three species of cavity nesting honey bees, namely Apis indica, Apis cerana, and Apis karinjodian.
• Distribution:
  • The distribution of Apis karinjodian ranges from the central Western Ghats and Nilgiris to the southern Western Ghats, covering the States of Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu.
• Protection:
  • IUCN Red List: Near Threatened (NT)

What is the Status of the Apiculture in India?

• The globally apiculture market is estimated to register a Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4.3% during the period 2020–25, with Asia–Pacific as the dominant producer.
• The Indian apiculture market size is expected to reach a value of Rs 33,128 million by 2024, expanding at a CAGR of nearly 12% by 2024.
• India is the sixth major natural honey exporting country.
  • During 2019–20, the recorded export of natural honey was 59,536.75 MT for Rs 633.82 crore. The major export destinations were the USA, Saudi Arab, Canada, and Qatar.

What are Related Initiatives?

• ‘Sweet Revolution’:
  • It is an ambitious initiative of the Government of India for promoting apiculture, popularly known as 'beekeeping'.
  • To provide a booster shot to Sweet Revolution, the government launched the National Beekeeping and Honey Mission in 2020 (under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare).
    • National Beekeeping and Honey Mission aims to establish 5 big regional and 100 small honey and other Bee Products testing laboratories.
    • Out of the total target, 3 world class state-of-the-art laboratories have been setup, whereas 25 small laboratories are in the process of being set up.
• Assistance for Setting up of Processing Units:
  • India is also providing assistance to the beekeepers for setting up of Processing Units.
  • More than 1.25 lakh metric tonnes of honey are being produced in the country, out of which more than 60 thousand metric tonnes of natural honey is exported.
• Adopting Scientific Techniques:
  • In order to bring qualitative upgradation of domestic honey to attract the world market, the Government of India and the State Governments are making concerted efforts and focusing on capacity building of beekeepers for production of honey by adopting scientific techniques.

Source: TH