Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2022

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Nobel Prize in Physics 2022

For Prelims: Nobel Prize Physics 2022, Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Entanglement

For Mains: Application of Quantum Mechanics

Why in News?

The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2022 was awarded to John F. Clauser, Alain Aspect and Anton Zeilinger for their work in quantum mechanics by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

• In 2021, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Syukuro Manabe and Klaus Hasselmann (jointly) for their research on climate models and to Giorgio Parisi for his work on the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems.
• The Nobel Prize for 2022 in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Svante Pääbo for his research in the field of genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution.

What is Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Entanglement?

• Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the movement and interaction of various bodies. Mechanics has two parts - classical and quantum.
  • Classical or Newtonian mechanics is the mathematical study of the motion of macroscopic objects and the forces that affect them.
  • Quantum mechanics is a subfield of physics that describes the behavior of particles — atoms, electrons, photons and almost everything in the molecular and sub molecular realm.
    • One important difference in the behaviour of quantum systems, when compared to classical rigid bodies, is the concept of entanglement.
• Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon by which a pair of subatomic particles are allowed to exist in a shared state where they have complementary properties, such that by measuring the properties of one particle, one can automatically know the properties of the other particle.
  • This is true regardless of how far apart the two particles are transported.
  • Quantum entanglement was first elucidated by Erwin Schrödinger in 1935, leading to his well-known cat paradox.

What is Bell Inequality?

• In the 1960s, John Stewart Bell developed the mathematical inequality - Bell Inequality which states that if there are hidden variables, the correlation between the results of a large number of measurements will never exceed a certain value.
  • Quantum mechanics predicts that a certain type of experiment will violate Bell’s inequality, thus resulting in a stronger correlation than would otherwise be possible.

What is the Experiment?

• The laureates have been awarded for their experiments with entangled photons (quantum entanglement), establishing the violation of Bell inequalities, and pioneering quantum information science.
• John F. Clauser developed John Bell’s ideas, leading to a practical experiment which supported quantum mechanics by clearly violating a Bell inequality implying that quantum mechanics cannot be replaced by a theory that uses hidden variables.
• Alain Aspect developed the setup, using it in a way that closed an important loophole.
  • He was able to switch the measurement settings after an entangled pair had left its source, so the setting that existed when they were emitted could not affect the result (as some loopholes remained after John Clauser’s experiment).
• Anton Zeilinger was chosen for his innovative use of entanglement and Bell pairs both in research and application such as quantum cryptography.
  • His research group demonstrated a phenomenon called quantum teleportation, which makes it possible to move a quantum state from one particle to the one at a distance.

How is the Experiment Significant?

• The development of experimental tools has laid the foundation for a new era of technology based on quantum information.
• It will help in utilising the special properties of individual particle systems to construct quantum computers, improve measurements, build quantum networks, establish secure quantum encrypted communication (quantum cryptography) and precise timekeeping as is done in atomic clocks.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. Who among the following scientists shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with his son? (2008)

(a) Max Planck
(b) Albert Einstein 
(c) William Henry Bragg
(d) Enrico Fermi

Ans: (c)

Q. Nobel Prize winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (2008)

(a) Metallurgy
(b) Meteorology 
(c) Environmental protection
(d) Genetics

Ans: (d)

---

Mains

Q1. The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings? (2021)

Q2. Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics. (2018)

Source: TH

Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2022

For Prelims: Nobel Prize, Click Chemistry, Bioorthogonal Chemistry, Biotechnology

For Mains: Innovations & Discoveries in Science and Technology, Nobel Prize, Biotechnology

Why in News?

Carolyn R Bertozzi, Morten Meldal and K Barry Sharpless have been awarded the Nobel Prize 2022 in Chemistry “for the development of Click Chemistry and Bioorthogonal Chemistry”.

• Sharpless (won second time) came up with the term ‘click chemistry’ and worked extensively on it.
• Meldal, independently of Sharpless, came up with a special chemical structure called ‘triazole’ which has many significant applications.
• Bertozzi took the next step of developing click reactions that could work inside living organisms — ‘bioorthogonal’ reactions (a term she coined).
• The 2021 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Benjamin List and David MacMillan for the development of asymmetric organocatalysis.

Note

K Barry Sharpless shared the 2001 Nobel Prize with William S. Knowles and Noyori Ryōji for “Developing the First Chiral Catalysts”.

What is the Nobel Winners’ Contribution in Click Chemistry?

• Concept (Coined by Sharpless):
  • Click Chemistry is a minimalistic form of chemistry in which molecular building blocks can quickly and efficiently snap together. It is a form of simple and reliable chemistry, where reactions occur quickly, and unwanted by-products are avoided.
  • The concept of Click Chemistry was coined by Barry Sharpless around the year 2000, he found that instead of forcing carbon atoms, the building blocks of organic matter, to bond with each other in the process of building molecules, it’s easier to link smaller molecules with complete carbon frameworks.
  • The central idea is to choose simple reactions between molecules that have a “stronger intrinsic drive” to bond together, resulting in a faster and less wasteful process.
  • Significance: Chemists often try to recreate complex chemical molecules found in nature, and this has applications, among other things, in the field of medicine – how to target and block pathogens in cells. However, this process can be complicated and time-consuming.
    • Click chemistry, the robust method for building molecules, cannot provide exact copies of natural molecules but it will be possible to find molecules that fulfil the same functions.
• Azide - Alkyne Cycloaddition (Meldal and Sharpless):
  • In the 2000s, Meldal and Sharpless (independent of each other) provided the crown of Click Chemistry- the copper catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition.
  • Meldal found that adding copper ions to a reaction between an alkyne and an acyl halide created a triazole, a stable ring-shaped chemical structure that’s a common building block in pharmaceuticals, dyes and agricultural chemicals. Adding copper ions helped control the reaction and create just one substance.
  • Together, the alkyne and the azide combined to make a triazole. Azide is an N₃ (Nitride Ion) organic compound, whereas an alkyne is a hydrocarbon with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
    • This simple and effective chemical reaction is now widely used in the development of drugs, mapping Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), and creating materials that are more fit for purpose, among many other things.
• Bioorthogonal Reactions (Bertozzi):
  • These reactions work inside living organisms without disrupting the normal chemistry of the cell.
  • Its use in combination with nanotechnology can lead to further developments in diverse areas of biomedicine, such as molecular bioimaging, targeted delivery, in situ drug activation, study of cell–nanomaterial interactions, biosensing, etc.
  • Using bioorthogonal reactions, researchers have improved the targeting of cancer pharmaceuticals.

How did Bertozzi develop Cancer Fighting Click Chemistry?

• Spotting Glycans:
  • While researching glycans, an elusive type of carbohydrate found on the surface of cells that is crucial to the immune system, Carolyn R Bertozzi wanted to attach fluorescent molecules to glycans so they could be easily spotted.
    • Bertozzi turned to the same azide used by Sharpless and Meldal. The azide not only avoids interacting with other parts of the cell, but it’s also safe to introduce in living beings.
  • In 2004, she developed an alternate click chemistry reaction that worked without toxic copper, making it safe for living cells.
  • Bertozzi work is being used to identify glycans on the surface of tumour cells and block their protective mechanisms that can incapacitate immune cells.
    • This method is currently in clinical trials for people with advanced cancer. Researchers have also begun developing “clickable antibodies” that can help track tumours and accurately deliver doses of radiation to cancer cells.

Source: IE

Nobel Prize 2022 in Medicine/ Physiology

For Prelims: Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, Paleogenomics, Neanderthals, Denisova

For Mains: Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, Paleogenomics, Neanderthals, Denisova, scientific Innovations & Discoveries

Why in News?

Recently, the 2022 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to Swedish geneticist Svante Pääbo for his research in the field of genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution.

• In 2021, the honour went to two United States-based scientists, David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian for their discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch.

What are the Key Highlights of Svante Paabo’s Research?

• Human Evolution: Homo sapiens, first appeared in Africa approximately 300,000 years ago, while closest known relatives, Neanderthals, developed outside Africa and populated Europe and Western Asia from around 400,000 years until 30,000 years ago, at which point they went extinct.
• Genome Sequencing of Neanderthals: After sequencing Neanderthals' genes it is found that archaic gene sequences from our extinct relatives influence the physiology of present-day humans.
  • For e.g., the Denisovan version of the gene EPAS1 confers an advantage for survival at high altitudes and is common among present-day Tibetans.
  • Other examples are Neanderthal genes that affect our immune response to different types of infections.
• Discovery of Denisova: In 2008, a 40,000-year-old fragment from a finger bone was discovered in the Denisova cave in the southern part of Siberia.
  • The DNA Sequencing of this bone had led to the discovery of a previously unknown hominin, which was given the name Denisova.
• Coexistence of Different Human Species: The ancestors of modern humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans co-existed for about 20,000 years, during which they not only interacted with each other but also inter-bred.
  • In modern day humans with European or Asian descent, approximately 1-4% of the genome originates from the Neanderthals.
  • Further, gene flow had also occurred between Denisova and Homo sapiens. This relationship was first seen in populations in Melanesia and other parts of South East Asia, where individuals carry up to 6% Denisova DNA.
• Novel Methodology:
  • It is not easy to amplify and sequence ancient DNA because it is highly fragmented and full of contamination from microbes like fungi and bacteria. Over time, DNA tends to degrade and become chemically modified.
  • Therefore, Pääbo decided to study mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthals.
  • Mitochondria, popularly called the powerhouse of the cell, is an organelle inside the cell that has its own DNA.
  • Although the mitochondrial genome is small and only contains a fraction of genetic information in the cell, it is present in thousands of copies. This increases the chance of its successful sequencing.
• Significance:
  • The conceptual breakthrough is of paramount importance in understanding human evolution.
  • Dr Pääbo’s research has resulted in the rise of a new scientific disciple called Paleogenomics, which is the study and analysis of genes of ancient or extinct organisms.

Who were Neanderthals?

• Neanderthals, the closest relatives of the present-day human species, lived in Europe and West Asia – as far as southern Siberia and the Middle East – before they disappeared around 30,000 years ago.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. The word ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to (2019)

(a) fossils of a kind of dinosaurs
(b) an early human species
(c) a cave system found in North-East India
(d) a geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent

Ans: (b)

Exp:

• Denisovans are an extinct species of hominid and were close relatives of Neanderthals. They are another population of early human who lived in Asia.
• The Denisovans are a much more recent addition to the human family tree. Paleoanthropologists unearthed a 40,000-year-old adult tooth and an exquisitely preserved fossilized little finger bone that had belonged to a young girl who was between five and seven years old when she died.
• Studies reflect that the girl was closely related to Neanderthals, yet distinct enough to be classified as a new species of archaic humans, which scientists named “Denisovan” after the cave where the bone was found. The Denisovan genome also suggests the young girl had brown hair, eyes, and skin. Therefore, option (b) is the correct answer.

Source: TH

Criterion for SC Status

For Prelims: Criterion for SC Status, Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order of 1950, Registrar General of India.

For Mains: Criterion for SC Status and Arguments for and against the Inclusion of Dalit Cristians and Muslims.

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court has sought the government's position on petitions challenging the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order of 1950 (amended in 1956 & 1990), which allows only members of Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist religions to be recognised as SCs.

What is the Petition about?

• The petitions arguing for inclusion Dalit Christians and Muslims have cited several independent Commission reports that have documented the existence of caste and caste inequalities among Indian Christians and Indian Muslims.
• Petitions cited that even after conversion, members who were originally from SCs continued to experience the same social disabilities.
• The petitions have argued against the proposition that caste identity is lost upon conversion, noting that even in Sikhism and Buddhism, casteism is not present and yet they have been included as SCs.
• By citing various reports and commission, petitions argue that caste-based discrimination continues even after conversion, hence entitling these communities to SC status.

Who is included in the Constitution Order of 1950?

• When enacted, the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order of 1950, initially provided for recognising only Hindus (with exceptions) as SCs, to address the social disability arising out of the practice of untouchability. However, the order also provided that every member of Ramdasi, Kabirpanthi, Mazhabi, or Sikligar caste resident in Punjab or the Patiala and East Punjab, be deemed to be a member of the Scheduled Castes whether he professes the Hindu or Sikh religion.
• The Order was amended in 1956 to include Dalits who had converted to Sikhism (in entirety) and once more in 1990 to include Dalits who had converted to Buddhism. Both amendments were aided by the reports of the Kaka Kalelkar Commission in 1955 and the High-Powered Panel (HPP) on Minorities, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in 1983 respectively.
• The Union government in 2019 rejected the possibility of including Dalit Christians as members of SCs, rooting the exclusion on an Imperial Order of 1936 of the then colonial government, which had first classified a list of the Depressed Classes and specifically excluded “Indian Christians” from it.

Why are Dalit Christians excluded?

• The Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI) had cautioned the government that SC status is meant for communities suffering from social disabilities arising out of the practice of untouchability, which it noted was prevalent in Hindu and Sikh communities.
• It also noted that such a move would significantly swell the population of SCs across the country.
• In 2001, RGI referring to 1978 note and added that like Dalit Buddhists, Dalits who converted to Islam or Christianity belonged to different sets of caste groups and not just one, as a result of which they cannot be categorised as a “single ethnic group”, which is required by Clause (2) of Article 341 for inclusion.
• Moreover, the RGI opined that since the practice of “untouchability” was a feature of Hindu religion and its branches, allowing the inclusion of Dalit Muslims and Dalit Christians as SCs could result in being “misunderstood internationally” as India trying to “impose its caste system” upon Christians and Muslims.
• The 2001 note also stated that Christians and Muslims of Dalit origin had lost their caste identity by way of their conversion and that in their new religious community, the practice of untouchability is not prevalent.

What are the Arguments in favor of Religion-Neutral Reservation?

• The change in religion does not change social exclusion.
• The social hierarchy and specifically caste hierarchy continues to remain within Christianity and Muslims even though the religion forbids it.
• Considering the above scenario, the reservation needs to be delinked from religion.

Is this the first time the government has considered this issue?

• In 1996, the government first brought a Bill to amend the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order which could not be passed.
• The government within days attempted to include Dalit Christians as SCs through an Ordinance, which was sent to the President of India but could not then be promulgated.
• In 2000, the Atal Bihar Vajpayee government had sought the opinion of the Office of the RGI and the then National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes on whether Dalit Christians could be included. Both had recommended against the proposition.
• Apart from this, several attempts have been made from time to time but all failed.

What are the Constitutional Provisions For Upliftment of the Schedule Caste?

• Article 15(4) refers to the special provisions for their advancement.
• Article 16(4A) speaks of “reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of SCs/STs, which are not adequately represented in the services under the State’.
• Article 17 abolishes Untouchability.
• Article 46 requires the State ‘to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
• Article 335 provides that the claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State.
• Article 330 and Article 332 of the Constitution respectively provide for reservation of seats in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People and in the legislative assemblies of the States.
• Under Part IX relating to the Panchayats and Part IXA of the Constitution relating to the Municipalities, reservation for SC and ST in local bodies has been envisaged and provided.

Source: TH

India lags in Biomass Co-firing Targets

For Prelims: Biomass and its Benefits, Decarbonization, Green House Gas.

For Mains: Biomass Co-Firing, Significance and Challenges.

Why in News?

The Ministry of Power is considering cutting coal supply to plants, which do not comply with biomass cofiring Norms.

• The Power Ministry in October 2021 had decreed that all thermal power plants ensure 5% compliance by October 2022.
• In 2020-21, only eight power plants had co-fired biomass pellets, and this number had risen to 39 recently.

What is Biomass Co-firing?

• About:
  • Biomass co-firing is the practice of substituting a part of the fuel with biomass at coal thermal plants.
    • Coal and biomass are combusted together in boilers that have been designed to burn coal. For this purpose, the existing coal power plant has to be partly reconstructed and retrofitted.
    • Co-firing is an option to convert biomass to electricity, in an efficient and clean way, and to reduce GHG (Green house Gases) emissions of the power plant.
  • Biomass co-firing is a globally accepted cost-effective method for decarbonising a coal fleets.
  • India is a country where biomass is usually burnt on the field which reflects apathy towards resolving the problem of clean coal using a very simple solution that is readily available.
• Significance:
  • Biomass co-firing is an effective way to curb emissions from open burning of crop residue, it also decarbonised the process of electricity generation using coal.
    • Substituting 5-7 % of coal with biomass in coal-based power plants can save 38 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.
  • It can help cut emissions from combustion of fossil fuels, address India’s burgeoning problem of farm stubble burning to some extent, reduce waste burden while also creating jobs in rural areas.
  • India has large biomass availability as well as rapid growth in coal-fired capacity.
• Challenges:
  • The existing infrastructure is not robust enough to substitute 5-7% of coal with biomass in coal-based power plants, which indeed can save 38 million Tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.
  • Around 95,000-96,000 tonnes of biomass pellets are required per day for co-firing, but India’s pellet manufacturing capacity is 7,000 tonnes per day at present despite a surplus 228 million tonnes of agricultural residue available in the country.
    • This huge gap is due to the seasonal availability and unreliable supply of biomass pellets to the utility.
  • It is challenging to store biomass pellets for long durations at the plant sites since they absorb moisture from air quickly, rendering them useless for co-firing.
  • Only pellets with up to 14% of moisture can be used for combustion along with coal.

What is Biomass?

• About:
  • Biomass is plant or animal material used as fuel to produce electricity or heat. Examples are wood, energy crops and waste from forests, yards, or farms.
  • Biomass has always been an important energy source for the country considering the benefits it offers.
• Benefits:
  • It is renewable, widely available, carbon-neutral and has the potential to provide significant employment in the rural areas.
  • It is also capable of providing firm energy. About 32% of the total primary energy use in the country is still derived from biomass and more than 70% of the country’s population depends upon it for its energy needs.
• Biomass Power & Cogeneration Programme:
  • About:
    • Initiated by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
    • For efficient utilization of biomass, bagasse-based cogeneration in sugar mills and biomass power generation have been taken up under the programme.
    • Biomass materials used for power generation include Rice husk, straw, cotton stalk, coconut shells, soya husk, de-oiled cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, groundnut shells, saw dust etc.
  • Objective:
    • Promoting technologies for optimum use of the country's biomass resources for grid power generation.

What are the other Related Initiatives?

• National Mission on use of Biomass in Coal Based Thermal Power Plants
• Carbon Capture and Storage
• Coal Beneficiation

Way Forward

• Platforms need to be established to ensure farmers have an intrinsic role in this business model of pellet manufacturing and co-firing in power plants.
• To exploit co-firing potential without adverse environmental impact, emerging economies need technology and policy preparation.
• Sustainability indicators for bioenergy, including protection of soil and water resources, biodiversity, land allocation and tenure, and food prices, need to be integrated into policy measures.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Q. Consider the following: (2019)

1. Carbon monoxide
2. Methane
3. Ozone
4. Sulphur dioxide

Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (d)

Exp:

• Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals, and it is a renewable source of energy. Biomass contains stored energy from the Sun. Plants absorb the Sun’s energy in a process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat.
• Crop residue and biomass burning (forest fires) is considered as a major source of Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Methane (CH₄), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and Nitrogen Oxides (NOX). Burning of rice crop residue releases Suspended Particulate Matter, SO₂, NO₂ and O₃ in the atmosphere.
• Therefore, option (d) is the correct answer.

Source: TH

Role of Nanomaterials in Solving Environmental Issues

For Prelims: Nanomaterials, Carbon Dots, Nanotechnology

For Mains: Scientific Innovations & Discoveries, Nanotechnology

Why in News?

The use of modern technology like nanomaterials or Carbon Dots (CD) may offer solutions to environmental issues like water pollution.

• The urban development of modern society has resulted in the introduction of harmful and toxic pollutants into waterbodies, disturbing the integrity of the aquatic environment.
• Novel technological developments like nanotechnology provide innovative solutions for sustainable and efficient environmental cleanup.

What is Nanotechnology?

• About:
  • Nanotechnology is the use and the development of techniques to study physical phenomena and develop new material and devices structures in the physical size range from 1 to 100 nanometres (nm).
  • Nanotechnology influences almost all areas of our lives, including manufacturing, electronics, computers and information technologies, medicine, the environment and energy storage, chemical and biological technologies and agriculture.
• Nanotechnology in India:
  • The emergence of nanotechnology in India has witnessed the engagement of a diverse set of players, each with their own agenda and role.
  • Presently nanotechnology in India is mostly a government-led initiative. Industry participation has very recently originated.
  • Nanotechnology R&D barring a few exceptions is largely being ensued at public-funded universities as well as research institutes.

What are Carbon Dots?

• About:
  • CDs are one of the youngest members of the carbon nanomaterial family.
  • They were discovered in 2004 and have an average diameter of less than 10 nanometres.
  • CDs possess remarkable optical properties, which differ peculiarly based on the precursor used for synthesis.
  • They are becoming more popular as candidates in applications such as sensing and bioimaging due to their good electron donors and acceptors.
    • Bioimaging relates to methods that non-invasively visualise biological processes in real time.
  • Moreover, CDs are inexpensive, highly biocompatible, and environment-friendly.
• Role of CDs in Managing Environmental Issues:
  • Pollutant Sensing:
    • CDs provide an excellent possibility for fluorescence and colourimetric environmental pollutants detection.
    • They are widely used as a fluorescent nanoprobe for pollutant detection because of their high fluorescence emission.
    • They also enable the detection of pollutants with colour change by the colourimetric method.
  • Contaminant Adsorption:
    • The technology can provide many surfaces adsorption sites due to their small size and large specific surface area.
  • Water Treatment:
    • CDs can also be useful for water treatment as they are promising nano-fillers in fabricating thin-film nanocomposite membranes where they can form chemical bonds with other compounds.
    • CDs have been produced from water hyacinth waste, which showed green fluorescence under UV light. They were also proven to be fluorescent sensors to detect herbicides causing trouble in aquatic bodies.
  • Pollutant Degradation:
    • The technology can also be useful for pollutant degradation by providing a cutting-edge approach for next-generation photocatalysis.
      • Photocatalysis includes reactions that take place by utilising light and a semiconductor.
    • Organic pollutants in polluted water can act as electron and hole transferring agents, while carbon dots act as photosensitiser.
  • Antimicrobial:
    • Antimicrobial mechanisms of CDs mainly include physical/mechanical destruction, oxidative stress, photocatalytic effect and inhibition of bacterial metabolism.
    • CDs in contact with the bacteria cell under visible or natural light could efficiently generate reactive oxygen species.
    • This can damage Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) or Ribonucleic Acid (RNA), causing bacteria death.

What is Categorization of Green Synthesis of Carbon Dots?

• Generally, the synthesis of carbon dots can be categorised into “top-down” and “bottom-up” methods.
  • The top-down approach converts large carbon structures into quantum-sized carbon dots by laser ablation, arc discharge, and chemical or electrochemical oxidation.
  • In the bottom-up method, CDs are produced from carbonising small molecule precursors by pyrolysis, carbonisation, hydrothermal processes or microwave-assisted synthesis.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q. With reference to the use of nanotechnology in the health sector, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2015)

1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by nanotechnology.
2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene therapy.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Ans: (c)

Exp:

• Nanotechnology is the study and use of structures between 1 nm ( i.e., nanometer) and 100 nm in size.
• Nanotechnology in health sector can be used for targeted drug delivery as well as it can also help in gene therapy.
• Gene therapy uses genes to treat or prevent a disease. It allows the doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into the patient’s cells instead of using drugs or surgery. Hence, statements 1 and 2 are correct. Therefore, option (c) is the correct answer.

---

Mains

Q. What do you understand by nanotechnology and how is it helping in the health sector? (2020)

Source: DTE

SASTRA Ramanujan Prize 2022

Why in News?

The SASTRA Ramanujan Prize for 2022 will be awarded to Yunqing Tang, Assistant Professor with the University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.

• Ms. Yunqing’s works display a remarkable combination of sophisticated techniques, in which the arithmetic and geometry of modular curves and of Shimura varieties play a central role, and her results and methods are bound to have major impact on future research in this area.

What are the Key Points of the Awards?

• The award was instituted by the Shanmugha Arts, Science, Technology & Research Academy (SASTRA) in 2005.
• A cash prize of USD 10,000 is presented annually to individuals aged 32 and below, who made outstanding contributions in the field of mathematics, influenced by Srinivasa Ramanujan in a broad sense.

Who was Srinivasa Ramanujan?

• About:
  • Ramanujan was born on 22^nd December 1887 in the village Erode (400 km from Chennai, then known as Madras).
  • The famous British mathematician Godfrey Harold Hardy recognised his talent in 1913. He went to Cambridge, on Godfrey Harold Hardy’s invitation.
  • Ramanujam made substantial contributions to the analytical theory of numbers and worked on elliptic functions.
  • He also worked on the partition of the whole number, hypergeometric series and Euler's constant.
  • His papers were published in English and European journals, and in 1918 he was elected to the Royal Society of London.
  • He died on April 26^th, 1920, at the age of 32, just after returning to India after a long illness.
  • In India, 22^nd December is celebrated as National Mathematics Day in the memory of Srinivasa Ramanujan.
• Contributions:
  • Formulas and Equations:
    • Ramanujan compiled around 3,900 results consisting of equations and identities. One of his most treasured findings was his infinite series for Pi.
    • He gave several formulas to calculate the digits of Pi in many unconventional ways.
  • Game Theory:
    • He discovered a long list of new ideas to solve many challenging mathematical problems, which gave a significant impetus to the development of game theory.
    • His contribution to game theory is purely based on intuition and natural talent and remains unrivalled to this day.
  • Ramanujan’s Book:
    • One of Ramanujan’s notebooks was discovered by George Andrews in 1976 in the library at Trinity College. Later the contents of this notebook were published as a book.
  • Ramanujan number:
    • 1729 is known as the Ramanujan number.
    • It is the smallest number which can be expressed as the sum of two different cubes in two different ways.
      • 1729 is the sum of the cubes of 10 and 9 - cube of 10 is 1000 and cube of 9 is 729 adding the two numbers results in 1729.
      • 1729 is also the sum of the cubes of 12 and 1, cube of 12 is 1728 and cube of 1 is 1 adding the two results in 1729.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Q. A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of (2016)

(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar 
(c) S.N. Bose
(d) C.V. Raman

Ans: (a)

Exp:

• ‘The Man Who Knew Infinity’ is a movie based on the biography of S. Ramanujan (1887-1920), an Indian mathematician, known for his immense contribution in mathematical analysis. He was a fellow of the Royal Society.
• Therefore, option (a) is the correct answer.

Source: TH

Light Combat Helicopter (LCH): Prachanda

Why in News?

Recently, the Indian Air Force formally inducted the indigenously developed multi-role Light Combat Helicopter (LCH), Prachanda which is suitable for operating in high-altitude battlefields.

What is a Light Combat Helicopter?

• About:
  • The LCH is the only attack helicopter in the world which can land and take off at an altitude of 5,000 meters with a considerable load of weapons and fuel.
  • The helicopter uses radar-absorbing material to lower radar signature and has a significantly crash-proof structure and landing gear.
    • A pressurised cabin offers protection from Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) contingencies.
  • The helicopter is equipped with a countermeasure dispensing system that protects it from enemy radars or infrared seekers of enemy missiles.
  • LCH is powered by two French-origin Shakti engines manufactured by the HAL.
• Genesis:
  • It was during the 1999 Kargil war that the need was first felt for a homegrown lightweight assault helicopter that could hold precision strikes in all Indian battlefield scenarios.
    • This meant a craft that could operate in very hot deserts and also in very cold high altitudes, in counter-insurgency scenarios to full-scale battle conditions.
  • India has been operating sub 3 ton category French-origin legacy helicopters, Chetak and Cheetah, made in India by the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
    • These single engine machines were, primarily, utility helicopters. Indian forces also operate the Lancer, an armed version of Cheetah.
  • In addition, the Indian Air Force currently operates the Russian origin Mi-17 and its variants Mi-17 IV and Mi-17 V5, with maximum take-off weight of 13 tonnes, which are to be phased out starting 2028.
  • The government sanctioned the LCH project in October 2006 and HAL was tasked to develop it.
• Significance:
  • The LCH has the capabilities of combat roles such as destruction of enemy air defence, counter insurgency warfare, combat search and rescue, anti-tank, and counter surface force operations.

Source: IE

National Young Superintendents of Police Conference and Police Expo

Why in News?

Recently, The Union Minister of State for Home Affairs addressed the inaugural function of the 4^th National Youth Superintendents of Police Conference and Police Expo.

What are the Key Highlights of the Event?

• About:
  • The Police Expo focuses on latest technologies in areas, such as, Body Armour, Mine Protective Vehicles (MPVs), Less than Lethal Technologies, Advanced Weaponry, Latest Communication Equipment, Surveillance Equipment, Coastal Security, Drone & Anti-Drone Technologies, Cyber Security/Cyber Crime Management and Big Data & Predictive Analytics for effective delivery of Police Services to citizens.
• Theme:
  • Innovation and Research in Cybercrime Management, Drones and Counter Drones.
• Key Areas of Discussion:
  • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Center (I4C):
    • I4C was approved in 2018 to deal with the increasing cases of cybercrimes in a coordinated and effective manner.
    • This coordination center has seven components, of which a significant component is located at the National Cyber Research and Innovation Center (Bureau of Police Research and Development). The other six components are:
      • National Cyber Crime Threat Analytics Unit
      • National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal
      • National Cyber Crime Training Centre
      • Cyber Crime Ecosystem Management Unit
      • National Cyber Crime Forensic Laboratory Ecosystem
      • Platform for Joint Cyber Crime Investigation Team.
    • This state-of-the-art Centre is located in New Delhi.
  • Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and System (CCTNS):
    • Background:
      • Crime and Criminal Tracking Network & Systems (CCTNS) is a plan scheme conceived in the light of experience of a non-plan scheme namely - Common Integrated Police Application (CIPA).
    • Objectives:
      • Make the Police functioning citizen friendly and more transparent by automating the functioning of Police Stations.
      • Improve delivery of citizen-centric services through effective usage of Information Communication Technology.
      • Provide the Investigating Officers of the Civil Police with tools, technology and information to facilitate investigation of crime and detection of criminals.
    • Status:
      • It has been implemented in all 16,347 police stations across the country and in 99% police stations, 100 percent FIRs are being registered directly in CCTNS.
  • Usage of Drones:
    • Drones can be useful in combat operations, surveillance, communication in remote areas for internal security, border security and security in remote areas.
    • Drones can also be used for transportation of medicines, food and essential commodities and for search and rescue operations in areas affected by natural calamities and disasters.
    • Digital mapping of property is being done with the help of drones, and in the near future, new avenues of employment can be generated by setting up soil testing laboratories in villages with the help of drone services.
    • Drones can also help farmers and fishermen in timely delivery of their produce with minimum damage and it will also be easier to spray pesticides on crops with minimum efforts.

What are India’s Initiatives for Cyber Crime & Drones?

• Bharat Drone Mahotsav
• Drone Rules 2021
• Drone Shakti Scheme
• Indian National Security Council
• Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In)
• Cyber Swachhta Kendra
• Cyber Surakshit Bharat

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Q1. Consider the following activities: (2020)

1. Spraying pesticides on a crop field
2. Inspecting the craters of active volcanoes
3. Collecting breath samples from spouting whales for DNA analysis

At the present level of technology, which of the above activities can be successfully carried out by using drones?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (d)

Exp:

• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) or drones are aircrafts that can be navigated without a human pilot on board. Drones can be navigated via control from the ground, using a GPS tracking system.
• Initially, drones have been developed mostly for military applications. However, its use has expanded to scientific, recreational, commercial and other applications including peacekeeping and surveillance, product delivery, aerial photography, agriculture, etc.
• They are now increasingly used to spray pesticides in agricultural fields to protect standing crops from pests. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• Scientists have also been using drones to study active volcanoes. The drone can both collect breath samples and take high-resolution photos of the whales from the air to assess general health conditions. Hence, statements 2 and 3 are correct.
• Therefore, option (d) is the correct answer.

Q2. In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits? (2020)

1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one’s computer.
2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant wilfully damages it, if proved so.
3. Cost of hiring a specialized consultant to minimize the loss in case of cyber extortion.
4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third party files a suit.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 4 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 3 only 
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Ans: (b)

Exp:

• Cyber Insurance is designed to guard businesses from the potential effects of cyber-attacks. It helps an organisation mitigate risk exposure by offsetting costs, after a cyber-attack/breach has happened. In simple terms, cyber insurance is designed to cover the fees, expenses and legal costs associated with cyber breaches.
• Coverage Includes
  • Response to breach events (notification, call centre service, breach resolution, mitigation services, public relation and crisis management),
  • Investigation & fines including lawyers, professional fees, administration cost etc, hence, 4 is correct
  • Expenses such as forensic, IT audit, crisis management, legal costs, hence, 3 is correct.
  • Privacy & data liability,
  • Loss of personal identifiable information,
  • Loss of corporate confidential info,
  • Network liability such as DDoS Attacks,
  • Multimedia covers including copyright issues,
  • Business Interpretation,
  • Income loss, business interruption cost, system damage and restoration cost, any extra expenses, hence 1 is correct.
  • Cyber theft,
  • Fund transfer frauds,
  • E-theft loss,
  • E-communication loss,
  • Cyber extortion.
• Therefore, option (b) is the correct answer.

Q3. The terms ‘WannaCry, Petya and EternalBlue’ sometimes mentioned in the news recently are related to (2018)

(a) Exoplanets
(b) Cryptocurrency 
(c) Cyber attacks
(d) Mini satellites

Ans: (c)

Exp:

• Ransomware is a form of malicious software (or malware). Once it takes over the computer, it threatens user to harm, usually by denying access to data. The attacker demands a ransom from the victim, promising to restore access to the data upon payment. WannaCry, Petya and EternalBlue are few of the ransom ware, which created havoc by demanding the victim ransom payment in bit coin (crypto currency).
• Cryptocurrency is a digital currency in which encryption techniques are used to regulate the generation of units of currency and verify the transfer of funds, operating independently of a central bank.
• Therefore, option (c) is the correct answer.

Source: PIB

UAE’s New Visa Rules

Why in News?

Recently, the United Arab Emirates’ (UAE’s) has announced new visa rules in order to attract tourists as well as those who wish to work or live in the UAE.

• A visa is an official document that allows the bearer to legally enter a foreign country.

What are the Key Changes?

• Three categories: Entry visa, Green visa and Golden visa.
• For the first time, the UAE has introduced entry visas that do not require a host or sponsor for visitors. Entry visas or Tourist Visas will now be available for single or multiple entries and will be valid for 60 days unlike the previous 30-day period.
• The Green Visa is a type of renewable-residence visa that allows foreigners to sponsor themselves for five years, without having to rely on a UAE national or employer to sponsor their visa. It replaces the previous residence visa that was valid only for two years.
• The Golden visa offers holders long-term renewable residence visas for upto 10 years. Those that are eligible for the Golden visa include investors, entrepreneurs, individuals with exceptional talents the likes of researchers, medical professionals and those within the scientific and knowledge fields and outstanding students and graduates.
  • Skilled professionals can get long-term residency if they have a minimum monthly salary requirement of AED (United Arab Emirates Dirham) 30,000 a month. Investors can also get the visa when purchasing a property worth at least AED two million.
• The updated visa system is an attempt at improving the quality of life and making the experience of living, working and investing in the UAE a pleasant and happy one.

How will it Benefit Indians?

• The Indian expatriate community of approximately 3.5 million constitutes about 30% of the UAE population.
• The restructuring of its entry and residence system will further boost the country’s image as an ideal destination for work and investment.
• Thousands of talented professionals are expected to find employment in the UAE and tourists can now experience a hassle-free vacation with the simplified visa system.

Source: TH