Water Crisis in India: Policy Interventions and Ground Realities

20 Nov 2024

Water is a vital yet limited resource, with only 1% of Earth's water readily accessible for human use, despite covering 70% of the planet. India is facing a severe water crisis that threatens its social, economic, and environmental stability. With population growth and climate change putting further strain on water resources, the urgent need for efficient use and conservation has emerged. Addressing this crisis is essential for sustainable development and ensuring clean drinking water for future generations.

In this blog, I will try to decode the state of water crisis in India, its causes and implications and ways to address this crisis following the principles of sustainable development.

State of Water Crisis in India

India is home to 18% of the world’s population but has access to only 4% of the world’s freshwater resources, making the country highly vulnerable to water scarcity. According to NITI Aayog's 2019 "Composite Water Management Index," approximately 600 million Indians face high to extreme water stress. India ranked 120 of 122 countries in the water quality index (NITI Aayog 2019).

The report also highlights that India's per capita water availability is around 1,100 cubic meters, below the water stress threshold of 1,700 cubic meters and close to the water scarcity threshold of 1,000 cubic meters per person.
21 Indian cities, including Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, and Hyderabad, are expected to run out of groundwater by 2030.
This crisis is exacerbated by climate change, rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth, which have led to over-extraction of groundwater and contamination of water bodies.
Bengaluru recently faced "abnormally high temperatures" in early 2024, creating urban heat islands and intensifying water scarcity, bringing the city close to a "Day Zero" scenario. This alarming situation highlights the urgent need for India to address its escalating water crisis.
As the projected water demand is estimated to exceed supply by 70% by 2025, agriculture would be the worst hit, followed by water-intensive industries. This could result in a 6% loss in GDP by 2050.

Water Conflicts in India

Water scarcity not only disrupts daily life but also fuels conflicts over the allocation of limited water resources. Competing demands often lead to disputes between communities, highlighting the challenge of fairly distributing water.

Keoladeo National Park faces recurring conflicts between the park’s water needs and local farmers' irrigation demands, with disputes often escalating, as seen in forest fires during dry seasons.
Similarly, in Maharashtra’s Upper Godavari Project, farmers in the upper canal reach siphoned water illegally, leading to conflicts over inequitable water distribution. The overexploitation of water resources and inadequate government intervention exacerbate these tensions.
Population growth intensifies competition for water, as seen in the Bhavani River basin, where unplanned expansion and rising domestic and industrial demands have created a significant gap between water supply and demand.
Moreover, poor irrigation policies, such as in Punjab, where water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane are cultivated, further strain water resources. Punjab’s failure to conserve water and shift to less water-intensive crops has worsened its water crisis.

Causes of the Water Crisis

Overdependence on Groundwater: Groundwater accounts for 65% of India’s irrigation and 85% of drinking water. Excessive reliance has led to a significant decline in water tables, especially in states like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu. The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) reports that 256 out of 700 districts face critical or overexploited groundwater levels.
Inefficient Water Management: India’s agricultural sector, which consumes 85% of the available freshwater, relies on inefficient practices like flood irrigation. The cropping patterns, driven by government policies that incentivize water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane in water-scarce regions, further aggravate the crisis.
- For example, Punjab and Maharashtra cultivate water-intensive crops despite facing water shortages.
Pollution and Contamination: Water pollution from industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and agricultural runoff has made large quantities of freshwater unusable. According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), more than 70% of India’s surface water is polluted. River systems like the Ganga and Yamuna face significant contamination, with untreated sewage being one of the major causes.
Climate Change: Changing rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and frequent floods induced by climate change are altering water availability. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has noted a decline in monsoon rainfall, which is critical for replenishing rivers, lakes, and groundwater reserves.
Rapid Urbanization: The burgeoning urban population has increased demand for water, putting immense pressure on existing water resources. Cities like Chennai have faced “Day Zero” scenarios, where taps run dry, and citizens are forced to rely on water tankers.
Lack of Adequate Water Infrastructure: Insufficient investment in water infrastructure, such as storage reservoirs, canals, and treatment facilities, has hindered the efficient management and distribution of water resources.
Population Growth: As the most populous country, with approximately 1.4 billion people, India's population is projected to reach 1.7 billion by 2050. This rapid growth places immense pressure on the country’s already limited water resources.
Inadequate Policy Implementation: Poor enforcement of water conservation initiatives, groundwater regulations, and environmental laws has undermined efforts to effectively combat water scarcity.

Impact of Water Scarcity

Health Issues: Limited access to safe drinking water can lead to a range of health problems, including dehydration, infections, diseases, and even fatalities. A report from NITI Aayog indicates that approximately 200,000 people in India die each year due to insufficient water supply.
Ecosystem Damage: Water scarcity also threatens wildlife and natural habitats across India. Many wild animals are forced to enter human settlements in search of water, which can result in conflicts and put these species at risk. Additionally, water scarcity disrupts biodiversity and the ecological balance of ecosystems.
Reduced Agricultural Productivity: The agricultural sector, which accounts for 85% of the country's water usage, is negatively impacted by water scarcity. This can lead to diminished crop yields, jeopardizing food security and increasing poverty among farmers.
Economic Losses: Water scarcity can hinder India’s economic growth and development. It can disrupt industrial production, reduce energy generation, and raise the costs associated with water supply and treatment. Furthermore, water scarcity can adversely affect tourism, trade, and social welfare.
- The World Bank’s report, “Climate Change, Water and Economy” (2016), highlights that countries facing water shortages may experience significant setbacks in economic growth by 2050.

Challenges to Water Conservation

India faces a multitude of challenges that hinder effective water conservation and management. Addressing these challenges is critical for ensuring sustainable water security in the country. Here are the key challenges:

Inadequate Infrastructure: Many rural areas suffer from a lack of sufficient water storage and distribution infrastructure. Issues such as leaky pipelines and inefficient systems exacerbate water scarcity, limiting access to clean and reliable water sources.
Legal and Institutional Challenges: The water governance framework in India is characterized by inconsistent and overlapping laws, inadequate enforcement, and institutional fragmentation. This complexity makes it difficult to implement effective water conservation measures and creates confusion regarding roles and responsibilities among various agencies.
Inadequate Data and Monitoring: Reliable data on water availability, quality, and usage is essential for effective policymaking. However, India’s water data systems are inadequate, with limited access to real-time information.
- A NITI Aayog report highlighted that most water-related schemes suffer from poor data monitoring and management, making it difficult to assess their impact.
Overemphasis on Supply-Side Solutions: Many water policies focus on increasing supply through large infrastructure projects like dams and canals, while neglecting demand-side measures like reducing water consumption and improving efficiency.
- For example, the construction of large dams in water-scarce regions has disrupted local ecosystems without addressing the root causes of water stress.
Lack of Community Participation: Many water schemes, particularly those related to groundwater management, rely on community participation. However, in practice, community involvement is often minimal due to a lack of awareness, insufficient training, and limited ownership of the projects.
Financial Constraints: Limited financial resources and competing demands for funding restrict the implementation of water conservation programs. Budgetary constraints hinder the development of essential infrastructure and the adoption of innovative water-saving technologies.
Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation, industrial use, and domestic consumption has led to alarming depletion rates of aquifers. This poses a significant threat to long-term water availability and agricultural productivity.
Wastewater Reuse Challenges: The recycling and reuse of wastewater face obstacles due to wasteful consumption practices by various industries. Effective treatment and management systems are often lacking, limiting the potential for utilizing this valuable resource.
Political Opposition: Large-scale projects, such as the Interlinking of Rivers, encounter political resistance due to concerns over potential flooding in some regions during the monsoon and water shortages in others during dry periods. This opposition hinders the implementation of comprehensive water management strategies.
Data Availability and Knowledge Gaps: Fragmented data collection and a lack of coordination among various governmental agencies result in significant knowledge gaps about water resources. This hampers evidence-based policymaking and limits transparency and accountability in water governance.
Vested Interests and Conflicting Stakeholders: Resistance from vested interests, including political and economic stakeholders, often obstructs necessary reforms in water management. Conflicting interests among various sectors can complicate water allocation and conservation efforts.

Policy Interventions

India has introduced various policies, programs, and missions to address water scarcity. These interventions focus on sustainable water management, increasing efficiency in water use, and ensuring equitable access.

National Water Policy (2012): The National Water Policy (NWP) emphasizes the need for integrated water resources management, prioritizing drinking water, sanitation, and agriculture. It promotes rainwater harvesting, rejuvenation of traditional water bodies, and the adoption of modern irrigation techniques like drip and sprinkler irrigation. However, critics argue that the policy lacks enforceability and does not account for the regional disparities in water availability.
Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): Launched in 2019, Jal Shakti Abhiyan is a time-bound, mission-mode campaign focusing on water conservation and management.
- It emphasizes five key intervention areas: rainwater harvesting, water conservation, renovation of traditional water bodies, watershed development, and afforestation. The initiative targets 1,592 water-stressed blocks in 256 districts across India. Despite its good intentions, JSA has faced implementation challenges due to insufficient funds and limited community participation.
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY): Funded by the World Bank, Atal Bhujal Yojana is a groundwater management scheme that aims to improve water use efficiency through community participation in seven states. It focuses on sustainable groundwater management by involving local communities in planning and implementation.
- The scheme adopts a decentralized approach, enabling Gram Panchayats to make decisions on water management. Early reports indicate some success, particularly in creating awareness and encouraging water-efficient practices, but widespread adoption is still pending.
Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): Launched in 2019, the Jal Jeevan Mission aims to provide tap water connections to every rural household by 2024. With a budget allocation of over Rs 3.6 lakh crore, JJM is one of the most ambitious water supply programs.
- It focuses on decentralization by involving local governance institutions, especially Gram Panchayats, in ensuring the sustainability of water sources. According to the Ministry of Jal Shakti, as of October 2023, around 60% of rural households have received tap water connections. However, challenges related to water quality, source sustainability, and fund utilization persist.
Namami Gange Programme: The Namami Gange Programme, launched in 2014, aims to rejuvenate the Ganga river through sewage treatment infrastructure, river surface cleaning, and afforestation activities. While the program has had some success in reducing industrial pollution, it faces challenges in treating sewage from cities and towns that line the river, many of which still discharge untreated effluents.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): PMKSY aims to enhance water use efficiency in agriculture by expanding irrigation infrastructure and promoting micro-irrigation techniques like drip and sprinkler systems.
- Despite progress, implementation has been slow, and many farmers remain dependent on traditional irrigation methods.
- A report by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) found that the utilization of funds under PMKSY has been below target in several states.

Addressing Water Scarcity in India

Reducing Overconsumption: One of the primary causes of water scarcity is the excessive and inefficient usage of water across various sectors, including agriculture, industry, and households. The integration of modern technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and remote sensing, can significantly enhance the measurement and management of water consumption.
- For instance, remote sensing and satellite monitoring can assist farmers in planning irrigation based on weather patterns and local topography, thereby conserving water and improving crop yields.
Improving Water Efficiency: Enhancing the performance of water systems and infrastructure such as distribution networks, treatment plants, and storage facilities is crucial to mitigating water scarcity. By repairing leaks, minimizing losses, and upgrading equipment, water wastage can be reduced, and water quality can be improved.
- For instance, UNICEF has rehabilitated urban water distribution networks and treatment systems in various countries to decrease water leakage and contamination.
Expanding Water Sources: Exploring alternative or additional water sources, including rainwater harvesting, aqueducts, desalination, water reuse, and groundwater extraction, can help increase the availability and accessibility of water for diverse uses.
- Desalination, for example, can convert seawater into freshwater for drinking and irrigation, particularly in coastal regions.
Strengthening Decentralized Water Governance: Empowering local communities and institutions to manage water resources is critical. This requires capacity building, access to technology, and financial support for local governance bodies like Gram Panchayats.
Promoting Sustainable Agriculture: The government should incentivize water-efficient crops, crop diversification, and modern irrigation techniques. Transitioning from water-intensive crops to drought-resistant varieties, especially in arid regions, is essential for conserving water.
Protecting Water Resources: It is vital to protect and restore natural resources that provide and regulate water, such as rivers, lakes, wetlands, forests, and soils. These ecosystems play a significant role in maintaining the water cycle, filtering pollutants, preventing erosion, and mitigating the effects of floods and droughts.
- For example, restoring wetlands can enhance both water quality and quantity by facilitating runoff storage and groundwater recharge.
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: India’s water infrastructure must be made resilient to climate change impacts. This includes building climate-smart dams, enhancing flood management systems, and developing drought-resistant water storage systems.
Reforming Water Policies: Reforming policies and institutions that govern water management and allocation is necessary for addressing water scarcity. This reform should involve establishing clear rules and incentives for water use, pricing, and conservation, as well as promoting stakeholder participation and cooperation.
- Enhancing monitoring and enforcement, and integrating water issues into broader development plans are also essential.
- For example, introducing Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for less water-intensive crops can alleviate pressure on agricultural water use. A reassessment of the existing MSP regime is crucial, as it currently promotes the cultivation of water-intensive crops such as paddy and sugarcane.
Using Micro Irrigation Techniques: Implementing micro-irrigation methods, such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, can not only conserve water but also enhance agricultural productivity.
- According to the MS Swaminathan Committee's 2006 report on "More Crop and Income Per Drop of Water," these methods can save approximately 50% of water used in crop cultivation and increase crop yields by 40-60%.

Conclusion

The water crisis in India is a complex and multifaceted challenge that requires a holistic approach combining policy reforms, technological innovations, and community engagement. While the government has introduced several ambitious programs to address water scarcity, their success hinges on effective implementation, coordination, and long-term planning

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